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THE 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


OR 


YOUTH’S INSTRUCTOR, 


BEING A 


MODERN COMPENDIUM OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE, 


INCLUDING 



GEOGRAPHY, ASTRONOMY, 

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, 
COMMERCIAL AFFAIRS, &c. &c. 

i 11 : 

BY J. MAYOR, F.A.S. 


A NEW EDITION, WITH THE IMPROVEMENTS IN SCIENCE TO THE 

PRESENT TIME. 


toitf) a Series of elegant <$ngrabtngs. 


LONDON: 

GEORGE VIRTUE, 26 , IVY LANE. 



, T7\ 
























PREFACE 


TO THE IMPROVED EDITION. 


The advantages attending the use of Elementary 
Works like the present, may be justly estimated by the 
great number of copies which are annually introduced 
among different branches of the community. 

In presenting to the public a new and improved 
edition of “Mavor’s Young Man’s Companion,” the 
editor need not remind the reader of the advantageous 
circumstances in which, compared with former years, 
every contributor to the stores of useful elementary 
knowledge is now placed. Within the last few years, 
almost all the subjects treated of in the present Work' 
have received accessions of important information; and 
it will be seen, by a reference to the Table of Contents, 
that it has been the editor’s aim to incorporate these 
materials in the new edition, in such a manner as will, 
he trusts, materially enhance its value. 





IV 


PREFACE. 


In Biography, the death of some of the most eminent 
individuals, which this or any past age has produced, 
affords an opportunity of introducing some new and 
interesting biographical sketches, as those of Canning, 
Byron, Scott, Wilberforce, &c. 

The chapters on the advantages of the Pursuit of 
Knowledge, and on Commerce, Trade, &c., which are 
first introduced in the present edition, will be found to 
contain some general principles of a useful kind, suitable 
to the present advancing state of society. 

In Geography, the vast accessions to our information 
in relation to countries before unknown, as the effect 
of modern discoveries, in Africa, near the North Pole, 
&c. have been appropriately introduced. 

In History, the recent convulsions in South America, 
and the settlement of the different countries in Europe, 
since the changes effected by the wars of the French 
revolution, are described. 

In Natural Philosophy, Natural History, 
Astronomy, &c., although the improvements have 
been on too large a scale to be fully introduced in an 
elementary Work like the present, yet the editor 
has endeavoured to notice them in such a manner 

• 

as shall excite in the reader a desire for more en¬ 
larged information. 




CONTENTS 


CHAPTER I. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE. 

(Page 1—11.) 

CHAPTER II. 

WRITING. 

(12—32.) 

PAGE 

Section 1. History of Written Language . 12 

2. Instructions in Writing. 17 

3. Pens and Ink . 20 

4. Short Hand . 24 

5. The Telegraph . 25 

€. Superscriptions and Addresses for Letters, &c. 27 

Royal Family. 27 

Nobility . 2? 

Gentry . 28 

Parliament. 29 

The Church. 29 

Officers of the Royal Household . 30 

Officers of the Civil List . 30 

The Army . 30 

The Navy . 30 v 

*> • Ambassadors . 31 

The Law. 31 

Lieutenancy and Magistracy. 31 

Governors under the Crown, &c. 32 

Incorporate Bodies . 32 

Men of Trade and Professions. 32 

b 

\ 

























VI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER III. 

GRAMMAR. 

(33—GO.) 

PAGE 

Section 1. General or Universal Grammar . 33 

2. English Grammar. 36 

Orthography . 36 

Etymology . 33 

Syntax . 49 

Prosody . 53 

Punctuation . 56 

Parsing . 58 

CHAPTER IV. 

ARITHMETIC. 

(61—165.) 

Section I. Origin and History . 61 

2. Principal Rules of Arithmetic. 65 

Notation or Numeration . 65 

Addition. 68 

Subtraction . 70 

Multiplication. 71 

Division . 75 

Compound Numeration. 80 

-Addition . 81 

-Subtraction . 87 

-Multiplication . 90 

-Division. 93 

-Reduction. 96 

The Rule of Three Direct. 100 

-Inverse. 103 

Compound Proportion, or the Rule of Five. 104 

Practice . 107 

Vulgar Fractions . 112 

Reduction of Vulgar Fractions . 113 

Addition of ditto ... 114 

Subtraction of ditto . 115 

Multiplication of ditto . 115 

Division of ditto . 115 

Decimal Fractions. 116 

Addition of Decimals. 116 

Subtraction of ditto . 117 

Multiplication of ditto . 118 

Division of ditto . 118 

Reduction of ditto. 118 

Interest . 119 

Exchange . 127 

Extracting of Roofs . 131 

Extraction of the Square Root. 132 

Use of the Square Root. 133 

Extraction of the Cube Root . 133 

Use of the Cube Root . 134 




















































CONTENTS. V31 

PAGE 

Section 3. Mensuration . 134 

Superficial Measure . 138 

Solid Measure. 141 

Artificers’ Work. 141 

Glaziers’ Work . 141 

Painters’ Work . 142 

Joiners’Work. 143 

Carpenters’ Work . 143 

Sawyers’ Work . 144 

Bricklayers’, Tilers’, and Slaters’ Work. 144 

Land Measure . 145 

Timber Measure. 145 

Gauging. 145 

4. Algebra . 146 

Addition . 149 

Subtraction . 151 

Multiplication. 151 

Division . 153 

Equations . 155 

5. Logarithms . 158 

Nature and Use of Logarithms. 160 

Logarithms of Natural Numbers. 163 

CHAPTER V. 

COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 

(166—214.) 

Section 1. History and General Principles. 166 

2. Commercial Companies . 178 

Exclusive or Joint Stock Companies . 178 

Open or Regulated Companies. 183 

Civic Companies and Corporations . 185 

3. Banks. 186 

4. The Public Funds. 192 

5. Book-keeping. 195 

Single Entry . v . 196 

Double Entry. 199 

Bills of Exchange. 211 

CHAPTER VI. 

BIOGRAPHY. 

(215-334.) 

Section 1. Statesmen, Philosophers, and Men of Science . 219 

The Right Hon. George Canning. 228 

Belzoni . 237 

Sir H. Davy . 242 

2. Naval and Military Men . 245 

Columbus. 215 

Duke of Marlborough . 252 










































Vlll 


CONTENTS 


f 

PAGE 

Section 2 . Naval and Military Men :— 

Colonel Gardiner . 261 

Lord Nelson. 273 

Lord Collingwood. 280 

3. Poets and Men of Literature .. 288 

Doctor Johnson. 288 

Cowper . 294 

Sir Walter Scott. 300 

Lord Byron . 309 

4. Eminent Christians, Philanthropists, Divines, &c. 313 

Howard . 313 

Wilberforce . 317 

Bishop Heber. 321 

Robert Hall . 325 

Dr. William Carey . 328 

CHAPTER VII. 

HISTORY. 

(335—371.) 

Sacred History . 337 

Profane History. 338 

History of England... 352 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CHRONOLOGY. 

(372—377.) 

CHAPTER IX. 

GEOGRAPHY. , 

(378—435.) 

Europe. 3-87 

Great Britain and Ireland. 403 

Asia .:. 409 

Africa. 422 

North America . 428 

South America . 433 

CHAPTER X. 

ASTRONOMY. 

(436-451.) 

The Solar System . 435 

Comets . 442 

Eclipses . 445 

Tides.. 44 Q 

The Fixed Stars. 447 






























CONTENTS. * IX 

CHAPTER XI. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

(452—501.) 

PAGE 

Section 1. Mechanics. 452 

The Mechanic Powers . 455 

2. Hydrostatics . 457 

3. * Hydraulics . 462 

4. Pneumatics . 463 

5. Acoustics . 469 

6. Pyronomics . 471 

7. Optics. 475 

Optical Instruments . 485 

8. Electricity. 488 

9. Galvanism. 496 

10. Magnetism. 498 


CHAPTER XII. 

NATURAL HISTORY. 

(502—535.) 

Zoology, or. the Animal Kingdom. 503 

Class I. Mammalia, Quadrupeds . v .. 504 

Order 1.— Primates. Monkeys, &c. 505 

Order 2.— Brata. Sloth, Armadillo.. 507 

Order 3.— Ferce. The Cat, Lion, Tiger . 508 

Order 4.— Glires. Rat, Beaver . 511 

Order 5.— Pecora. Ox, Goat . 512 

Order 6 .— Belluce. Horse, Ass, . 514 

Order 7.— Pinnata. Seal, Walrus . 515 

Order 8 .— Cete , or Cetacea. Whale, Por¬ 
poise . 515 

Class II. Aves, Birds . 516 

Order 1.— Accipitres. The Vulture, Kite, &c. 517 

Order 2.— Piece. Woodpecker, Raven. 518 

Order 3.— Passeres. Martin, Wren . 518 

Order 4.— Gallince. Pheasant, Ostrich. 520 

Order 5.— Grallce. Heron, Bittern . 520 

Order 6 .— Anseres. Swan, Cormorant. 521 

Class III. Amphibia. 522 

Order 1.— Reptilia. Frog, Tortoise, &c. 522 

Order 2 .— Serpentes. Rattle-snake, Viper. 523 

Class IV. Pisces, Fishes . 524 

Order 1.— Apodes. Sword-fish, Eel, &c. 525 

Order 2.— Jugulares. Cod, Dragonet . 525 

Order 3.— Thoracia. Flounder, Perch. 525 

Order 4.— Abdominales. Sprat, Herring. 526 

Order 5.— Cartilaginei. Torpedo, Sturgeon... 526 

Class V. InsectA, Insects .-. 527 

Order 1.— Coleoptera. Beetle, Glow-Worm,&c. 528 








































X 


CONTENTS 


PAG Ik 

Zoology—Class V. Insecta, Insects:— 

Order 2.— Hemiptera. Locust, Grasshopper, &c 52S 

Order 3.— Lepidoptera. Butterfly, Silkworm. 529 

Order 4 .— Neuroptera. Dragon-fly, May-fly 530 

Order 5.— Hymenoptera. Wasp, Bee, Ant. ... 530 

Order 6 .— Diptera. Horseleech, Gnat . 531 

Order 7.— Aptera. Crab, Shrimp, Flea . 531 

Class VI. Vermes, Worms, &c. 532 

Order 1.— Mollusca. Slug, Snail, &c . 533 

Order 2.— Vermes, or Worms. 533 

Order 3.— Zoophytes. Coral . 534 

Order 4.— Animalcula , Infusoria . 534 

# 

CHAPTER XIII. 

BOTANY, OR THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 

(536—556.) 

Roots . 537 

Buds . 537 

Trunk . 537 

Leaves. 538 

Props . 538 

Inflorescence. 538 

Fructification . 539 

Classification . 541 

Class 1. Monandria. 543 

2 . Diandria . 543 

3. Triandria . 544 

4. Tetrandria. 545 

5. Pentandria. 546 

6 . Hexandria. 547 

7. Heptandria . 548 

8 . Octandria . 548 

9. Enneandria . 549 

10. Decandria. 549 

11. Dodecandria. 549 

12. Icosandria. 550 

13. Polyandria . 550 

14. Didynamia. 550 

15. Tetradvnamia . 551 

16. Monadelphia. 551 

17. Diadelphia. 552 

18. Polyadelphia. 552 

19. Syngenesia. 553 

20 . Gynandria. 553 

21 . Monoecia. 554 

22 . Dioecia . 554 

23. Polygamia. 555 

24. Cryptogamia... 555 









































CONTENTS. 


XI 


CHAPTER XIV. 

MINERALOGY, OR THE MINERAL KINGDOM. 

(557—567.) 

PAGE 

Section ]. Geology. 557 

Rocks. 560 

2. Mineralogy. 562 

Earths and Stones. 562 

Salts . 564 

Combustibles. 564 

Metals. 565 


CHAPTER XV. • 

THE BELLES LETTRES. 

(56S—615.) 

Section 1. Rhetoric. 569 

2. Epistolary Correspondence . 581 

3. Poetry . 585 

Epic . 591 

Lyric . 591 

Elegiac . 596 

Pastoral . 596 

Didactic. 597 

Descriptive. 597 

Versification . 611 


CHAPTER XVI. 

THE ARTS AND SCIENCES. 

(616—659.) 

Section 1. Drawing and Perspective. 619 

Landscapes. 622 

Perspective. 625 

Shading. 628 

Colouring . 630 

2. Painting on Glass. 631 

3. Enamelling . 636 

4. Engraving. 642 

5. Sculpture . 645 

6. Pottery ana Porcelain . 651 

7. Architecture .*. 655 






























XI i 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTELt XVII. 

GOVERNMENT, LAWS, ETC. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

(660—666.) 


The Legislative Authority. 

The Judicial Authority. 

The Executive Authority. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

CHRISTIANITY. 
(667—634 ) 


Principal Doctrines of Christianity 
Religious Sects . 


PAGE 

661 

662 

663 


PAGE 

667 

677 


APPENDIX. 

685—696.) 


Abstract of Parliamentary Reform Bill. 685 

Principal Clauses . 685 

Schedule A. ®88 

_ B 688 

_ C 689 

- D. . 689 

_ E. 689 

_ F . 691 

-G. 691 

Notices . 692 

Abstract of Municipal Reform Bill. 694 

Receipts, Memorandums, &c. 695 


LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 


Frontispiece, (Biography,) and engraved Title. 

Geography (Map of the World) . 378 

Astronomy. 437 

Natural Philosophy. Plate I. 456 

Natural Philosophy. Plate II.„.,.. 477 

Natural History. ... 513 

Botany . 536 

Drawing. 616 

Perspective. 625 































THE 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION, 

Sec. Sfc. 


CHAPTER I. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE. 


One of the finest characteristics of the human family, as dis¬ 
tinguished from the other orders of beings by which they are 
surrounded, is the capacity for progressive improvement in 
knowledge. The animal creation come into the world in a much 
more perfect state than man; but then they are incapable of his 
powers of reflection and reason, by which he is enabled to make 
constant advances in the attainment of those objects which he 
desires. It may Jbe said, indeed, that there are instances in 
which animals have made advances towards improvement; but this 
may rather be considered as an exception to the rule, for whatever 
they have of a progressive character, is generally the result of 
their imitation of man, or of their having become subject to the 
tuition of the lords of the creation. 

Generally speaking, the actions of the inferior animals are 
governed by instinct, and those of man by reason, though in¬ 
stances might be adduced in which reason and instinct are 
common to both. Instinct is that disposition or tendency in 
animals, by which, independently of all instruction or experience, 
they are unerringly directed to do spontaneously whatever is 
necessary for the preservation of the individual, or the continuance 
of their kind. Now the operations of this instinctive principle, 
whether in man or animals, are generally perfect at once, while 
those of reason are imperfect, and, in order to obtain any 
eminence, must be progressive. 

B 





YOUNG Man's COMPANION. 


The instinct of the inferior animals is admirably illustrated in 
the conduct of the winged tribes. The youngest pair of birds, it is 
known, without instruction or experience, build their first nests of 
the materials commonly used by their species, in situations whose 
privacy, &c. render them fit to afford them security, and con¬ 
venient for incubation, and the rearing of their young. It is also 
certain, that they show equal skill with the oldest and most prac¬ 
tised of their tribe, in the neatness, accuracy, and symmetry of 
their work. When danger, or any other circumstance peculiar to 
certain countries, renders a deviation from the common form or 
situations of nests necessary, that deviation is made in an equal 
degree, and in the very same manner, by all the birds of one 
species ; and it is never found to extend beyond the limits of the 
country where alone it can serve any good purpose. When 
removed, by necessity, from their eggs, birds return to them with 
haste and anxiety, and shift them so as to heat them equally ; and 
it is worthy of observation, that their haste to return is always in 
proportion to the cold of the climate. “ What,” says Mr. Addi¬ 
son, u can we call the principle which directs every different kind 
of bird to observe a peculiar plan in the structure of its nest, and 
directs all of the same species to w r ork after the same model ? It 
cannot be imitation; for though you hatch a crow under a hen, 
and never let it see any of the works of its own kind, the nest it 
makes shall be the same, to the laying of a stick, with all the 
other nests of the same species. It cannot be reason; for w r ere 
animals endowed with it to as great a degree as man, their 
buildings would be as various as ours, according to the various 
conveniences that they wo’dd propose to themselves.” 

How different is that process by which the youthful human 
being is destined to acquire, by degrees, a knowledge of all those 
subjects which render life valuable! This can never be attained 
but by diligent and persevering exertions, and that from the 
earliest period in which the intellectual powers begin to expand. 
How forcibly does this impress us with the importance of using 
all those means which our beneficent Creator has designed should 
be in operation for the acquisition of knowledge, and for the im¬ 
provement of the rational and intellectual, which is the most im¬ 
portant part of man ! 

In the pursuit of this object, one of the most powerful means 
is early instruction. This is greatly facilitated by a knowledge of 
books; and a selection of those which most readily promote the 
purposes of education, is of the utmost importance. It is true, 
that the earliest instructions are dependent chiefly on the use of 
the faculty of speech. This is, indeed, a peculiar and valuable 


PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE. 


3 


attribute of man, and, doubtless, was in the early ages of the 
world the only mode by which knowledge was communicated. 
But had man never possessed any other method of communication 
than speech, what would have become of all the literary stores of 
antiquity ? how should we have been in possession of the opinions 
of sages, or the maxims of wisdom, if the sounds which were first 
articulate only to the ear had not found their way to the under¬ 
standing, through the medium of written language ? If man had 
not possessed this, or some other extensive power of communica 
tion, that astonishing system, which we call the human mind, 
would have remained in inactivity, its faculties torpid, its energies 
unexcited, and that capacity of progressive improvement, which 
forms so important a part of the mental constitution of man, 
would have been given in vain,—would have been unknown, 
except to Him who gave it. But in every part of the creation we 
discern a unity of design, which equally proves the wisdom and 
benevolence of the great First Cause. 

The means of bringing his powers into activity are bestowed 
upon man, as well as the powers themselves; and it is a position 
which will bear a rigorous examination, that the accuracy of human 
thought, and the extent of human intellect, generally proceed in 
equal steps with the accuracy and extent of language. “ This 
'inestimable prerogative ,"' 1 says Smellie, “ is perhaps one of the 
greatest secondary bonds of society, and the greatest improve¬ 
ment to the human intellect. Without artificial language, (i. e. 
that which is capable of being committed to writing or printing,) » 
though nature has bestowed upon every animal a mode of ex¬ 
pressing its wants and desires, its pleasures and its pains, what 
a humiliating figure would the human species exhibit, even upon 
the supposition that they did associate! But when language and 
society are conjoined, the human intellect, in the progress of time, 
arrives at a high degree of perfection. Society gives rise to 
virtue, honour, government, subordination, arts, sciences, order, 
and happiness. All the individuals of a community conduct 
themselves upon a regular system. Under the influence of esta¬ 
blished laws, kings and magistrates, by the exercise of legal autho¬ 
rity, encourage virtue, repress vice, and diffuse, through the extent 
of their jurisdiction, the happy effects of their administrations. 
Tn society, as in a fertile climate, human talents germinate, and 
are expanded; the mechanical and liberal arts flourish; poets, 
orators, historians, philosophers, lawyers, physicians, and theolo¬ 
gians are produced . 11 

It is to the exercise of that power by which a use is made of 
the stores of knowledge furnished by written language, that the 


4 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


succeeding chapters of this work are devoted. The importance ot 
persevering exertions in the pursuit of knowledge from early life, 
and the necessity of availing ourselves of all those circumstances 
which have a tendency to promote it, might be illustrated by a 
multitude of examples; but one or two shall suffice. Sir Isaac 
Newton, of all men that ever lived, is the one who has most ex¬ 
tended the territory of human knowledge ; and he used to speak 
of himself as having been all his life but “a child gathering 
pebbles on the sea-shore—probably meaning, by that allusion, 
not only to express his modest conviction how mere an outskirt 
the field of his discoveries was, compared with the vastness of 
universal nature, but to describe likewise the spirit in which he had 
pursued his investigations. That was a spirit, not of selection 
and system-building, but of childlike alacrity, in seizing upon 
whatever contributions of knowledge nature threw at his feet, and 
of submission to all the intimations of observation and experiment. 
On some occasions he was wont to say, that if there was any 
mental habit or endowment in which he excelled the generality of 
men, it was that of patience in the examination of the facts and 
phenomena of his subject. This was merely another form of that 
teachableness which constituted the character of the man. He 
loved truth, and wooed her with the unwearying ardour of a lover. 
Other speculators had consulted the book of nature, principally 
for the purpose of seeking in it the defence of some favourite 
theory; partially, therefore, and hastily, as one would consult a 
dictionary. Newton pursued it as a volume altogether worthy of 
being studied for its own sake. Hence proceeded both the 
patience with which he traced its characters, and the rich and 
plentiful discoveries with which the search rewarded him. If he 
afterwards classified and systematized his knowledge like a philo¬ 
sopher, he had first, to use his own language, gathered it like a 
child. 

Of all sorts of observations, that which exhibits the most pene¬ 
trating and watchful philosophy is, when, out of the facts and 
incidents of every-day experience, a gifted mind, by means of per¬ 
severing exertions, extracts new and important truths, simpty by 
its new manner of looking at them, and, as it were, by the aid of 
a light of its own, which it sheds upon their worn and obliterates 
lineaments. From one of these simple incidents, did Sir Isaac 
Newton read to the world, for the first time, the system of the 
universe. It was in the twenty-third year of his age that this 
extraordinary man was sitting, as we are told, one day in his garden, 
when an apple fell from a tree beside him. His mind was perhaps 
occupied, at that fortunate moment, in one of those philosophical 


PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE. 


speculations on space and motion, which are known to have, about 
this time, engaged his attention ; and the little incident which 
interrupted him, was instantly seized upon by his eager spirit, 
and, by that power which is in genius, assimilated with his 
thoughts. 

The existence of gravitation, or a tendency to fall towards the 
centre of the earth, was already known, as affecting all bodies in 
the immediate vicinity of our planet; and the great Galileo had 
even ascertained the law, or rate, according to which their motion 
is accelerated as they continue their descent. But no one had yet 
dreamed of gravitation of the heavens, till the idea now first dimly 
rose in the mind of Newton. The same power, he said to himself, 
which has drawn this apple from its branch, would have drawn it 
from a position a thousand times as high. Wherever we go, we 
find this gravitation reigning over all things. Why may it not 
reach to the moon itself? Why may not this be the very power 
which retains that planet in its orbit, and keeps it revolving as it 
does around our own earth ? It was a splendid conjecture, and we 
may be sure that Newton instantly set all his sagacity at work to 
verify it. If the moon, he considered, be retained in her orbit by 
a gravitation towards the earth, it is in the highest degree prob¬ 
able that the earth itself, and the other planets which revolve 
around the sun, are, in like manner, retained in their orbits by a 
similar tendency towards their central and ruling luminary. Pro¬ 
ceeding then, in the mean time, upon the supposition, he found 
by calculation, and by comparing the periods of the several planets, 
and their distances from the sun, that, if they were really held in 
their courses by the power of gravity, that pow r er must decrease in 
a certain proportion, according to the distance of the body upon 
which it operated. 

Supposing then this power, when extended to the moon, to de¬ 
crease at the same rate at which it appeared to do in regard to the 
planets, which revolved round the sun, he next set himself to 
calculate whether its force, at such a distance from the earth, 
would in reality be sufficient to retain that satellite in its orbit, 
and to account for its known rate of motion. Now, this step of 
the discovery was marked by a singular circumstance. In the 
computations which he undertook for the purpose of this investi¬ 
gation, he naturally adopted the common estimate of the magnitude 
of the earth, which was at that time in use among our geographers 
and seamen, and which allowed only sixty English miles to a 
degree of latitude, instead of sixty-nine and a half, which is the 
true measurement. The consequence was, that the calculation did 
not answer; it indicated, in fact, a force of gravity in the moon 


C YOUNG man’s COMPANION. 

towards the earth, less by one-sixth than that which was necessary 
to give the rate of motion actually possessed by that satellite. By 
an act of self-denial, more heroic than any other in the annals of 
intellectual pursuit, Newton dismissed the whole speculation from 
his mind, even for years. We need hardly state how gloriously 
this sacrifice was in due time rewarded. A few years after, upon 
obtaining more correct data, he repeated his calculation, and 
found it terminate in the very result he had formerly anticipated. 
The triumph and delight of that moment can hardly be conceived, 
when he saw, at least, that the mighty discovery was indeed all his 
own ! It is said that such was his agitation as he proceeded, and 
perceived every figure bringing him nearer to the object of his 
hopes, that he was at last actually unable to continue the opera¬ 
tion, and was obliged to request a friend to conclude it for him. 

We are aware that the system of the universe, as first laid down 
by Newton in consequence of this discovery, has been recently 
called in question by some more modern philosophers. The 
author of A Million of Facts has the following observations in 
^■elation to this subject. “ In his Third Book, Newton thus demon¬ 
strates the frame of the system of the world. The phenomena first 
considered are, 1. That the satellites of Jupiter, by radii drawn to 
his centre, describe areas proportional to the times of description; 
and that their periodic times, the fixed stars being at rest, are in 
the sesquiplicate ratio of their distances from that centre. 2. The 
same thing is likewise observed of the phenomena of Saturn. 
3. The five primary planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, 
Saturn, with their several orbits, encompass the sun. 4. The fixed 
stars being supposed at rest, the periodic times of the said five 
primary planets, and of the earth about the sun, are in the sesqui¬ 
plicate proportion of their mean distances from the sun. 5. The 
primary planets, by radii drawn to the earth, describe areas no 
ways proportional to the times; but the areas which they de¬ 
scribe by radii drawn to the sun, are proportional to the times of 
description. 6. The moon, by a radius drawn to the centre of the 
earth, describes an area proportional to the time of description. 
All which phenomena are clearly evinced by astronomical ob¬ 
servations. 

“ The mathematical demonstrations are next applied by Newton, 
in the following propositions:—Prop. 1. The forces by which 
the satellites of Jupiter are continually drawn off from rectilinear 
motions, and retained in their proper orbits, tend to the centre of 
that planet, and are reciprocally as the squares of the distances of 
those satellites from that centre.—Prop. 2. The same thing is true 
of the primary planets, with respect to the sun’s centre.—-Prop. 3 


PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE. 


The same thing is also true of the moon, in respect of the earth’s 
centre.—Prop. 4. The moon gravitates towards the earth; and 
by the force of gravity, is continually drawn off from a rectilinear 
motion, and retained in her orbit.—Prop. 5. The same thing is 
true of all the other planets, both primary and secondary, each with 
respect to the centre of its motion.—Prop. 6. All bodies gravitate 
towards every planet: and the weights of bodies towards any one 
and the same planet, at equal distances from its centre, are pro¬ 
portional to the qualities of matter they contain.—Prop. 7. 
There is a power of gravity tending to all bodies, proportional to 
the several qualities of matter which they contain.—Prop. 8. That a 
planet performs its orbit between the said force of gravity, and a 
centrifugal or projectile force originally implanted in them, and 
continued uniform owing to the motions being performed in spaces, 
so devoid of matter as not to oppose any sensible resistance ; which 
projectile force was originally a rectilinear motion, from which 
they have been reflected into orbits, by the attraction of universal 
gravity.—Prop. 9. That as no mechanical cause can be assigned 
for the projectile force, none for the gravitating force, and none for 
the rotation of planets on their axes, so all these phenomena must 
be referred to the immediate agency of the Supreme Being. These, 
and many other proportions and corollaries, are proved or illus¬ 
trated, by a great variety of experiments, in all the great points of 
physical astronomy. 

“ The preceding system ofiSir Isaac Newton, 1 ’ says the author of 
A Million of Facts, “being founded on the supposed attractions 
and repulsions of matter, which are mechanically impossible on 
the principle of universal attraction of gravitation, assumed on the 
alleged fall of the moon, sixteen feet in a minute, (whereas it is 
I28‘814 feet,) and on a miraculous projectile force acting in a 
vacuum,—Sir Richard Phillips has, in contrast, promulgated a 
system, in which the simple motions, momenta of bodies among 
one another, are proved to be the proximate causes of all material 
phenomena.'” This author next goes on to lay down the funda¬ 
mental principles,of Sir Richard Phillips’s system, for which the 
reader is referred to the above work, page 613, &c. 

The author then proceeds more fully to develop his system, for 
a particular account of which, the reader is referred to the work 
above quoted. How far this new system of philosophy will be 
generally received, can be ascertained only by its being brought to 
the test of reason and experiment. The Newtonian doctrine, 
though it has been subject to some important modifications, by 
the ordeal of nearly two centuries, yet continues to be the founda 
tion of the philosophy of the present day. We apprehend the 


8 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


other system to which allusion has been made, should it even 
make any converts for a short period, will soon expire. 

Another example of the way in which some of the most 
valuable truths of philosophy have been suggested, for the time, 
by the simplest incidents of common life, and afterwards con¬ 
firmed by experiment, is afforded by Galileo’s discovery of the 
regularity of oscillation in the pendulum. It was while standing 
one day in the metropolitan church of Pisa, that his attention was 
first awakened to this most important fact, by observing the move¬ 
ments of a lamp suspended from the ceiling, which some accident 
had disturbed, and caused to vibrate. Now this, or something 
exactly similar, was a phenomenon which, of course, every one 
had observed thousands of times before ; but yet nobody had 
ever viewed it with the philosophic attention with which it was on 
this occasion examined by Galileo. Or if, as possibly was the 
case, any one had been half unconsciously struck for a moment 
by that apparent equability of motion, which arrested so forcibly 
the curiosity of Galileo, the idea had been allowed to escape the 
instant it had been caught, as relating to a matter not -worth a 
second thought. The young philosopher of Italy (for he had 
not then reached his twentieth year) saw at once the important 
applications which might be made of the thought that had sug¬ 
gested itself to him. He took care, therefore, to ascertain imme¬ 
diately the truth of his conjecture, by careful and repeated 
experiment; and the result w r as, the complete discovery of the prin¬ 
ciple of the most perfect measure of time which we yet possess. 

But, perhaps, the most striking illustration we can give of the 
strange manner in which important truths will sometimes hide 
themselves for a long while from observation, is to be found in the 
history of the different discoveries relating to the mechanical pro¬ 
perties of the air. The knowledge of its positive weight, or 
gravity, is as old as the days of Aristotle. The common suction- 
pump is a still older invention; the effect of which depended on 
the pressure of the atmosphere. But although the air was known 
to be really a heavy body, nobody, for two thousand years, found 
out the true reason why, on its removal from the barrel of the pump 
by the elevation of the piston, the water rose into the vacant 
space. In the beginning of the last century, when the doctrine 
of a plenum was in vogue, philosophers were of opinion, that the 
ascent of water in pumps was owing to the abhorrence of a 
vacuum, and that by means of suction, fluids might be raised to 
any height whatever. But Galileo discovered that water could 
not ascend in a pump unless the sucker reached within thirty-three 
feet of its surface in the well. Having concluded, that not the 


PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE. 


9 


power of suction, but the pressure of the atmosphere, was the 
cause of the ascent of water in pumps; that a column of water 
thirty-three feet high was a counterpoise to one of air of an equal 
base, whose height extended to the top of the atmosphere; and 
that for this reason the water would not follow the sucker any 
further; from this Torricelli, Galileo’s disciple, took the hint, 
and considered, that if a column of water of about thirty-three 
feet in height was equal in weight to one of air having the same 
base, a column of mercury no longer than about twenty-nine 
inches and a half would be so too, because mercury being about 
fourteen times heavier than water, a column of mercury must be 
fourteen times shorter than one of water equally heavy. 

Accordingly, having filled a glass tube with mercury, and 
inverted it into a bason of the same, he found the mercury in the 
tube to descend till it stood about twenty-nine inches and a half 
above the surface of that in the bason. It was, however, some 
time after the Torricellian experiment had been made, and even 
after it had been universally agreed that the suspension of the 
mercury was owing to the weight of the atmosphere, before it was 
discovered that the pressure of the air was different at different 
times, though the tube was kept in the same place. But the 
variations of altitude in the mercurial column were too obvious to 
remain long unobserved; and, accordingly, philosophers soon 
became careful enough to mark them. 

It was the great Pascal, a man of sublime and universal genius, 
who, upon hearing of Torricelli’s experiment, first made the 
remark, that the inference which he had deduced from it might, if 
true, be confirmed beyond the possibility of dispute, by carrying 
the mercurial tube to a considerable elevation above the earth, 
when, the atmospheric column being diminished, that of the 
mercury, which was supposed to be its balance, ought to be 
shortened likewise in a corresponding proportion. It followed 
that we had thus, therefore, a measure of the weight of the atmo¬ 
sphere in all circumstances, and consequently of the height of any 
place to which we could carry the instrument. The experiment 
was performed, and the result was as Pascal had anticipated. In 
this way, at length, was completed a discovery, the first steps 
towards which had been made two thousand years before; during 
the whole of which period the phenomena best fitted to suggest 
it were matter of daily observation to every one ; but which, 
nevertheless, at last escaped even several of the greatest philoso¬ 
phers who had made the nearest approach to its development. 

“ Originallv,” says an elegant modem writer, “all human 
knowledge was nothing more than the knowledge of a compara- 

0 


10 


YOUNG MAN’o COMPANION. 


tively small number of such simple facts as those from which 
Galileo deduced the use of the pendulum for the measurement of 
ame, and Newton the explanation of the system of the heavens. 
All the rest of our knowledge, and these first rudiments of it 
also, a succession of individuals have gradually discovered in 
separate portions, by their own efforts, and without having any 
teacher to instruct them. In other words, every thing that is 
actually known has been found out and learned by some person 
or other, without the aid of an instructor. This is the first con¬ 
sideration for all those who aspire, in the present day, to be their 
own instructors in any branch of science or literature. 

“ Furnished as society now is, in all its departments, with accom¬ 
modations in aid of intellectual exertion, such as, in some respects, 
even the highest station and the greatest wealth in former times could 
not command, it maybe safely asserted, that hardly any unassisted 
student can have at present difficulties to encounter equal to those 
which have been a thousand times already triumphantly overcome 
by others. Above all, books, and especially elementary books, 
have, in our day, been multiplied to an extent that puts them 
within the reach almost of the poorest student; and books, after 
all, are, at least to the more mature understanding, and in regard 
to such subjects as they are fitted to explain, the best teachers. 
He who can read, and is possessed of a good elementary treatise 
on the science he wishes to learn, hardly, in truth, needs a master. 
With only this assistance, and sometimes with hardly this, some 
of the greatest scholars and philosophers that ever appeared, have 
formed themselves. And let him who, smitten by the love of 
knowledge, may yet conceive himself to be, on any account, un¬ 
fortunately circumstanced for the business of mental cultivation, 
bethink him how often the eager student has triumphed over a 
host • of impediments, much more formidable, in all probability, 
than any by which he is surrounded. Want of leisure, want of 
instructors, want of books; poverty, ill health, imprisonment, un¬ 
congenial or distracting occupations, the force of opposing example, 
the discouragement of friends or relations, the depressing consider¬ 
ation that the better part of life was already spent and gone,— 
have all, separately, or in various, combinations, exerted their 
influence either to check the pursuit of knowledge, or to prevent the 
very desire of it from springing up. But they exerted this influ¬ 
ence in vain. Here, then, is enough, both of encouragement and 
of direction, for all. To the illustrious vanquishers of fortune, 
we would point as guides for all who, similarly circumstanced, may 
aspire to follow in the same honourable path. Their lives are 
lessons that cannot be read without profit; nor are they lessons 


PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE 


11 


for the perusal of one class of society only. All, even chose who 
are seemingly the most happily situated for the cultivation of their 
minds, may derive a stimulus from such anecdotes. No situation, 
in truth, is altogether without its unfavourable influences. If 
there be not poverty to crush, there may be wealth and ease to 
relax, the spirit. He who is left to educate himself in every 
thing, may have many difficulties to struggle with ; but he who is 
saved every struggle, is, perhaps, still more unfortunate. If one 
mind be in danger of starving for want of books, another may be 
surfeited by too many. If, again, a laborious occupation leave to 
some but little time for stud}', there are temptations, it should be 
remembered, attendant upon rank and affluence, which are to the 
full as hard to escape from as any occupation. If, however, there 
be any one who stands free, or comparatively free, from every kind 
of impediment to the cultivation of his intellectual faculties, 
surely he must pursue, with peculiar interest, the account of what 
the love of knowledge has achieved in circumstances so opposite 
to his own. Certain, at least, it is, that such achievements 
produce a most powerful call upon his exertions in the pursuit of 
science and literature, that his acquisitions may be, in some 
degree, commensurate to his advantages. Finally, for all who 
love to read of bold and successful adventure, and to follow daring 
ambition in its career to greatness, it cannot but be interesting to 
contemplate the exploits of some of the most enterprising spirits 
of our race,—the adventurers, namely, of the world of intellect, 
whose ambition, while it has soared as high, and performed feats 
as brilliant as any other, never excites in us an interest dangerous 
to feel, nor holds up to us an example criminal to follow, because 
its conquests have been a blessing, and not a curse to humanity.” 
—See Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties* cli. i. 


12 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION 


CHAPTER IT. 

WRITING. 


Section I.— History of Written Language. 

This art has been justly considered one of the noblest and 
most beneficial inventions of which human ingenuity can boast. It 
has been supposed that the earliest method of communicating ideas 
without the exercise of speech, was by hieroglyphical characters, 
such as those which were in use among the ancient Egyptians. 
The most simple species of hieroglyphics was that in which the 
delineation of part of the object or action represented the whole; 
thus the ancient Egyptians painted a man's two feet in water to 
represent a fuller ; smoke ascending, to denote fire; two hands, one 
of which held a buckler, the other a bow, to denote a battle, &c. 
Examples of a second class of hieroglyphics, are the eye and the 
sceptre, to denote a king; a sword, to denote a bloody tyrant; 
the mouth, for speech and voice ; an eye, placed in an eminent 
position, to denote the presence of God ; and the sun and moon, 
in like manner, were used to denote the succession of time. A 
third kind of hieroglyphics was that w T hich employed, to represent 
one thing, another which had some resemblance or analogy to it. 
For instance, among the Egyptians the dog's head, (as among the 
Chinese the dog's voice,) was the symbol of sorrow; science was 
denoted by dew felling from heaven. The very metaphor is 
expressed in the form of a simile in Deut. xxxii. %: “ My doc¬ 
trine shall drop as the rain, my speech shall distil as the rain 
upon the tender herb, as the showers on the grass.” 

The rudest species of visible communications with which we are 
acquainted, is that of the Peruvians : it was by means of knotted 
cords of various colours. We have reason to believe, however, 
that this was not the only species of visible communication among 
them; and it was evidently very defective. By various colours 
different objects were denoted, and by each knot'a distinct num¬ 
ber; so that they might serve as a kind of register of the numbei 
of inhabitants in each province, or of the quota they furnished to 
the general treasury of the nation- The Mexican picture-writing 


WRITING. 


13 


was the first step in the progress towards alphabetical writing. 
The essential difference which it will be desirable to keep in mind 
between the latter and all the intermediate steps, is, that in 
alphabetical writing we use signs for sounds only ; except with 
the deaf, they are in the first instance significant of things or ideas 
only by an intermediate step: picture-writing, in all its various 
stages, presents signs for things or ideas directly, and only for 
sounds as being the denotement of them. The Mexicans, when 
the Spanish invaders first arrived on their coast, sent large paint¬ 
ings on cloth, as expresses to their emperor Montezuma. But the 
Mexicans had made much greater advances than their savage 
countrymen; except in some few instances, they did not go 
further than simple delineation, but by a proper disposition of 
their figures, they could exhibit a more complex series of events 
in historical order. They could describe, for instance, the occur¬ 
rences of a king’s reign from his accession to his death ; the 
progress of an infant’s education, from its birth to the years of 
maturity; the different recompenses and marks of distinction 
conferred upon warriors, in proportion to the exploits they had 
performed. Some very curious specimens of this picture-writing 
are preserved; the most valuable one has been published, and 
may be found in Purchas’s Pilgrim. It is divided into three 
parts. The first contains a history of the Mexican empire under 
its ten monarchs; the second is a tribute roll, representing what 
each conquered town paid into the royal treasury; the third is a 
code of their institutions, domestic, political, and literary. 

The first object of those who invented hieroglyphics, was to 
preserve the memory of events, and to make known laws and 
regulations for the conduct of the citizen and the man. Such 

O 

symbols, therefore, would first be employed as were of obvious 
interpretations. Figures founded on their language would be 
readily understood, even if the analogies which gave birth to the 
words were forgotten. By degrees they were employed for the 
more refined purposes of philosophy; and analogies and resem¬ 
blances were the foundation of hieroglyphics, which would be 
intelligible only to those who were acquainted with the sciences 
from which those analogies were deduced. We see, from the re¬ 
mains of the Egyptian hieroglyphics in their early stages, that 
they paid considerable attention to the delineation of their figures: 
they filled up the outline of their pictures; in process of time 
they used only the outline ; and these, again, they changed as 
the convenience of the writer dictated, till at last it lost every 
resemblance to the object which it originally represented. The 
changes that oui written characters have undergone, and are con- 


14 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


tinually undergoing, might be adduced as an exemplification of 
this procedure, from delineation to the cursive hieroglyphic. The 
mark for and , for example, was originally significant; it did not, 
indeed, represent an object, but it was a correct picture of a word. 
Some of the forms yet show its derivation ; <$• is obviously et, 
the Latin word for and , but continual changes have been made 
upon it, till the # of the writer no longer bears marks of its origin. 

We have now advanced to the verge of alphabetical writing. 
As the difference of articulate sounds was intended to express the 
different ideas of the mind, so one letter was originally intended 
to signify only one sound, and not, as at present, to express some¬ 
times one sound, and sometimes another; which practice has 
brought a great deal of confusion into the languages, and rendered 
the learning of the modem tongues infinitely more difficult than 
it would otherwise have been. This consideration, together with 
the poverty of all the known alphabets, and their want of some 
letters to express certain sounds by, has occasioned several attempts 
towards an universal alphabet, to contain one enumeration of all 
such single sounds or letters as are used in any language : a 
thing of very considerable use, a specimen of which is given us by 
Mr. Lodwick, in the Philosophical Transactions. This, however, 
has not come into common use. 

In regard to the first letters, it is still difficult to decide what 
they consisted of, who first invented them, or among what people 
they were first in use; however, setting aside conjectures and 
prejudice, the question of antiquity seems to lie between the 
Egyptians and Chinese. The Egyptian mummies and obelisks 
prove great antiquity on the side of their hieroglyphics; but if 
the Chinese chronology may be credited, their characters are 
much more ancient than those of the Egyptians. The Chinese 
consider Folii, the first of their kings, (supposed by many learned 
and judicious writers to have been the patriarch Noah,) the inventor 
of their letters; and compute that he lived two thousand nine 
hundred and fifty years before Christ, during all which time they 
pretend to have certain and written accounts in their books. If 
this be true, their character must be older than Moses by fourteen 
hundred years, and even prior to Menes, the first king of Egypt, 
by five hundred years; so that the Chinese letters appear to be the 
most ancient of that kind ; and the book Yekim, said to be written 
by Fold, the most ancient book. But as China is so remote, and 
had so little communication with these parts of the world, we may 
reasonably institute another inquiry into the origin of letters in 
Asia Minor, Egypt, and Europe. Here, indeed, the Egyptians seem 
to have the best title. It is more than probable, from the obelisks, 


WHITING. 


16 


&c. tliat their hieroglyphics were the first manner of writing, and 
the original characters in these parts, as being prior to Moses; 
and that they were made, at least in great measure, while the 
Israelites were slaves among them, and consequently not well 
qualified for inventions so very curious and judicious. 

To this source the learned bishop Warburton ascribes the 
origin of alphabetical writing among the Egyptians: for as philo¬ 
sophy advanced, and their learned men wrote much, the exact 
delineation of hieroglyphic figures became too tedious and too 
voluminous; and they, therefore, by degrees perfected another 
character, which he calls the running hand of hieroglyphics, re¬ 
sembling the Chinese characters, which being at first formed only 
by the outlines of each figure, became at length a kind of 
marks. This running character was denominated by the ancients 
hieroglyphical, and led to the compendious use of letters by an 
alphabet, which method of writing, as the ancients inform us, 
was invented by the secretary of an Egyptian king, and first 
used for secrecy in the conveyance of letters of state, whence 
it was called epistolary writing; but afterwards letters became 
common, and, as he observes, hieroglyphics secret and mys¬ 
terious. This political alphabet, he adds, soon occasioned the 
invention of a sacred one, used by the priests, and called hiero- 
grammatical. But the precise time of the invention of Egyptian 
letters cannot be so much as guessed at, because hieroglyphics 
continued in use long after letters had been found out; it is 
certain that they were very early, because the invention of them 
was ascribed to their gods. Bishop Warburton further conjectures, 
that Moses brought letters with the rest of his learning from 
Egypt, and that he both enlarged the alphabet, because the 
Hebrew alphabet which he employed in the composition of the 
Pentateuch is considerably fuller than that which Cadmus brought 
into Greece; and altered the shapes of the letters, reducing them 
into something like those simple forms in which we now find them, 
in order to prevent the abuse to which they would be liable as 
hieroglyphic marks and symbolic images. 

Previous to the invention of paper, various were the materials 
on which mankind, in different ages and countries, had contrived 
to write their sentiments; as on stones, bricks, the leaves of herbs 
and trees, and their rinds and barks; also on tables of wood, wax, 
and ivory ; to which may be added, plates of lead, linen rolls, &c. 
At length the Egyptian papyrus was invented ; then parchment; 
then cotton paper; and lastly, the common, or linen paper. In 
some places and ages they have even written on the skins of 
fishes; in others, on the intestines of serpents; and in others, on 


16 


Y O IT is xj MAN S COMPANION. 


tlie backs of tortoises. In Ceylon they write on the leaves of the 
talipot; and the Brahmin manuscripts in the Tulinga language, 
sent to Oxford from Fort St. George, are written on leaves of the 
ampana, or Palma Malabarica. In the Mai dive islands, the natives 
are said to write on the leaves of a tree called macaraquean, which 
are a fathom and a half long, and about a foot broad ; and in 
various parts of the East Indies, the leaves of the musa, or bor, or 
plantain tree, dried in the sun, served for the same use, till of late 
the French have taught them the use of European paper. 

The Egyptian papyrus, which was the material chiefly used by 
the ancients, was made of a kind of reed, called papyrus, growing 
in Egypt, on the banks of the Nile. According to Isidorus, 
this paper was first used at Memphis ; it is not certain at what 
particular period, but there are several authorities which prove the 
use of it in Egypt, long before the time of Alexander the Great. 
According to Pliny, they divided, with a kind of needle, the stem 
of the papyrus into thin plates, or slender pellicles, each of 
them as large as the plant would admit. These were the elements 
of which the sheets of paper were composed. As they were 
separated from the reed, they were extended on a table, and laid 
across each other, at right angles. In this state they were 
moistened by the water of the Nile, and whilst wet, were put 
under a press, and afterwards exposed to the rays of the sun. It 
was supposed that the water of the Nile had a gummy quality, 
necessary to glue these stripes together; but Mr. Bruce is of 
opinion that no such quality is found in the water, and that the 
saccharine quality, with which the whole juice of this plant is im¬ 
pregnated, is the matter that causes the adhesion of these stripes 
together, the use of the water being only to dissolve this, and put 
it perfectly and equally in fusion. 

The size of this paper varied much; it seldom exceeded two 
feet, but it was often smaller. It had different names, according 
to its size and quality. The first was called imperial, which was 
the finest and largest kind, and was used for writing letters by 
the great men among the Romans. The second sort was called 
by the Romans the Livian paper, from Livia, the wife of Augus¬ 
tus ; each leaf of this kind was twelve inches. The third sort 
was called the sacerdotal paper, and was eleven inches in size. 
The paper used in the amphitheatres was of the dimensions of 
nine inches; but what was esteemed of greatest value in it, was 
its strength, whiteness, and polish. Some manuscripts of this 
paper still remain, which have, undoubtedly, been written 1000 
or 1200 years ago. The papyrus was an important branch of 
commerce to the Egyptians, which continued to increase towards 


WRITING. 


17 


the end of the Roman republic, and became still more extensive 
in the reign of Augustus. It is probable that it continued in 
use after the sixth century, when it was gradually superseded b\ 
the charta bombycina, or paper made from cotton. This paper is 
incomparably more lasting, and better calculated for all the 
purposes of writing. It is not precisely known at what period 
this art, which supposes a great variety of previous experiments, 
was first reduced to practice; but it is supposed to have been 
towards the end of the ninth, or beginning of the tenth century. 

The art of making paper from vegetables reduced to pulp, 
somewhat analogous to the modern mode, was known in China 
long before it was practised in Europe; and the Chinese have 
carried it to great perfection. The fine paper in China is softer 
and smoother than most of that of Europe ; and these qualities 
are admirably adapted to the pencil, which the Chinese use in 
writing. The modern paper, now manufactured throughout 
Europe, of linen rags, was utterly unknown to the ancients. The 
precise time of this discovery in Europe is not exactly known. 
Father Mabillon believes that it was in the twelfth century; but 
it does not appear to have been in general use till about the 
beginning of the fourteenth century. The first paper-mill in 
England was established at Dartford, by a German, jeweller to 
Queen Elizabeth, about the year 1588. For a long time after 
its establishment, the manufacture was in a very backward state in 
this country, so that the finer kinds used to be imported from 
France and Holland, till within the last seventy or eighty years. 
From that period, however, the manufacturers of Britain have made 
rapid strides, and we now find that paper of the best quality is 
not only made in Kent, the original seat of the manufacture, but 
in almost every district of the island. 

The ancient order of writing was from right to left; and this 
method prevailed even among the Greeks. They , used, afterwards, 
to write alternately from right to left, and from left to right; this 
continued to the time of Solon, the famous Athenian legislator. 
However, the motion from the left to the right being found more 
natural and convenient, this method has been adopted by all the 
European nations. 

Section II.*— Instructions in Writing. 

The art of writing being altogether imitative, is purely mecha¬ 
nical ; it may, therefore, be said with truth, that every young person 
may,by proper attention, learn to write with regularity and elegance, 
with accuracy and speed. He has only to follow the counsels of a 

D 


18 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


judicious teacher, and to copy, with assiduity, the most conect 
specimens and examples he can procure, to become a proficient, in 
penmanship. In the beginning the learner ought to practise the 
formation of his letters of a very large size ; for in large cha¬ 
racters, errors more readily strike the eye, and may, consequently, 
be more easily corrected, than in small writing. In writing on a 
large scale, the proportions of the several parts of a letter amongst 
themselves, and of the broad and fine strokes of which these parts 
consist, are the most accurately and easily attended to; and he 
who is expert in forming a large character, will, with great 
facility, descend to the formation of others of a middling or 
small size. The young penman ought also to lay it down as a 
law to draw every stroke, and form every letter, with the greatest 
deliberation. It has, within these few centuries, become the 
practice in Europe to shape the letters not perpendicular to the 
line, as in Roman print, but inclined from the right above to the 
left below. This practice first sprung up in Italy, whither litera¬ 
ture, science, and the arts fled for protection, when, in the fifteenth 
century, Greece and Western Asia were overwhelmed by Maho¬ 
metan superstition and barbarism; and from whence the cheering 
light of knowledge spread over the other nations of Europe. In 
France, Spain, and Italy, the letters stand much more erect upon 
the line than they do with us ; yet we have never ascertained the 
degree of inclination of our written characters. Much, therefore, 
must in this case be left to the judgment and taste of the writer. 
Having adopted a proper degree of inclination, letters must all 
have precisely the same slope; that is, all the down-strokes must 
be drawn perfectly parallel to each other, or at equal distances 
asunder, in their whole length. Letters of the same kind must 
also be made of exactly equal lengths, whether, as i and n in round 
text, they be confined within the lines limiting the body of the 
writing, or as b and they rise above the upper line, or as p and 
y, they fall below the under line. It seems advisable that long 
letters, such as d and g , should just rise above the upper line, and 
fall below the under line, bounding the body of the writing, as 
much as is equal to the space between these bounding lines. 
Whatever indulgence may be granted to the writer in the size 
of the first capital beginning a letter, a poem, a discourse, &c., all 
the other capitals in the body of the work ought to be strictly 
confined to rise no higher above the body of the writing than b 
or k , or any other long small letters. 

All characters in writing are formed by means of two motions 
of the pen ; the one upwards, fine and delicate, and therefore 
railed a hair-stroke ; the other downwards, broad and strong, called 


WRITING. 


19 


a down-stroke. The proportion between those strokes never has 
been, and, perhaps, never can be, determined. Still, that some 
sort ot proportion ought to be preserved, will be evident to any 
one who examines letters written, engraved, printed, carved, or 
painted, in which the proper balance is not maintained. It is 
likewise to be observed, that in passing from the hair to the broad 
stroke, the change must be so gradual and regular, that it may be, 
in some measure, impossible to say where the former ends, and 
the latter begins. It is a great fault in writing, as in engraving 
and printing, that the hair-stroke is made so extremely delicate, 
that when beheld at a proper distance, the letters seem to consist 
only of an endless succession of dark lines, at certain intervals, 
apparently unconnected ; because the fine strokes, by which they 
are, in fact, joined together, are so over-fine, as then to be imper¬ 
ceptible. Having proceeded thus far in explanation of the rules 
for writing a fair hand, in this country, it is now necessary only to 
refer the student to the engraved examples or copies to be found 
in all respectable stationers’' shops. 

Nothing tends more to the acquisition of a good manner of 
writing than a proper mode of holding the pen, and an attitude of 
the hand, arm, and whole body, at once natural, easy, and graceful. 
If a writer suffer himself, or be suffered by his instructor, to 
contract a stiff, constrained, or awkward manner, in the manage¬ 
ment of his pen, or the position of his body at the desk, his ope¬ 
rations will be as irksome, and even painful, to himself, as they 
must be ludicrous and disgusting in the eyes of by-standers. 
In this, as in every human action in which the influence of habit 
is of importance, we are constantly to remember the old counsel, 
—to choose and practise what is the best, and custom will make 
it the most agreeable. The proper attitudes and motions of the 
body in writing can be learned much more speedily, and much 
more effectually, from the instructions and example of a skilful 
teacher, than from whole volumes on the subject. The pen should 
be held in the right hand, between the thumb and the fore and 
middle fingers. The middle finger partly on the side, and partly 
on the back, opposite to the head of the cut or cradle of the pen, 
and the fore finger close to it, on the back ; both quite straight. 
The thumb should support the other side of the pen, and be a little 
bent, in order to give it an easy motion. The fourth finger should 
be turned in towards the palm ; and the little finger, stretched out 
even with those holding the pen, should rest upon the paper, to 
support the hand. The elbow should be kept so near the body as 
to allow its motion to be easy and unconstrained, neither stiffly 
touching the side, nor ridiculously sprawling over the table. In this 


20 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


position, tlie pen will be held in a direction pointing to the right 
shoulder. The arm may rest lightly on the table or desk, between 
the elbow and the wrist: but the breast should never touch either. 
The pen must be held just so firmly as to keep its proper place, 
for if it be griped hard, the learner will never acquire ease and ex¬ 
pedition in writing. 

Section III.— Pens and ink. 

✓ 

If it be difficult to give precise and intelligible directions for 
placing the body and managing the pen in writing, it is still much 
more difficult to instruct the beginner how to turn a quill into a 
pen, or how to repair his pen when disordered by use. In this a 
few practical lessons from a skilful maker and mender will be of 
more service than any verbal instructions: the following general 
observations will, nevertheless, be of service. With the back of 
the pen-knife scrape the thin scurf from a goose-quill, particularly 
on the back, that the slit may be sound and clean. Then cut the 
quill half through, near the point, on the back, and quite through 
on the opposite side, half an inch from the point. With the edge 
of the knife, make a very short slit in the back notch, and with 
the end of the knife-haft, or another whole quill, by a quick 
pressure upwards, open the slit to a proper length, which will be 
fixed by pressing hard on the back of the quill, with the nail of 
the left thumb. By several applications of the knife, the quill is 
brought into the proper shape of a pen, ending in a fine point, which 
must be made even, or nibbed, in this way:—Place the knife upon 
the nib, and cut it through, by a change of position from a slope 
to right across; and then by other cuts give the finishing strokes 
to the pen. It is to be remembered that if, upon trial, the slit or 
the nib do not answer, it ought not to be scraped ; for that always 
makes it rough or ragged. When the nib, therefore, requires 
alteration, it is to be mended by nibbing, just as when first made. 
The breadth of the nib, and the length of the slit, are regulated 
by the breadth and the strength of the black down strokes intended 
to be written. The learner should accustom himself, in writing, 
to bear as lightly as possible on his pen. By this method he will 
be able at all times to draw not only a fine hair stroke, but 
a stroke of any particulai breadth and strength that may be 
required. 

Metal Pens.— As the introduction of metal pens, of various 
constructions, has now become very common, it seems needful in 
this place to say a few words respecting them. The chief ad¬ 
vantage derived from the introduction of these pens, is the saving 


WRITING. 


21 


of time both m regard to making and mending them, and to those 
who are well practised in the mode of using them, they have been 
found in this respect of the most essential service. When 
first introduced, metal pens were manufactured chiefly of steel, 
and were found not to answer, partly from the brittleness of the 
metal, and partly from the corrosive effect of the ink upon them. 
Latterly, however, compound metals of various kinds have been 
introduced, by which both these evils have been in great measure 
avoided. Great improvements have also been made in their con¬ 
struction, so as more effectually to imitate the pens made from 
quills. Of the metal pens now in use of an improved manufacture, 
those made by Rudhall and Co. Birmingham, are among the best. 
Many persons on a first trial of metal pens have too hastily dis¬ 
carded them, when by a little care in their first introduction, the 
inconveniences might be all remedied, and the advantage above 
alluded to, of saving of time, secured. Few rules for their use can 
be given beyond those obtained from experience, but the following 
may be of service. 1. To see the ink be always clear, and some¬ 
what more liquid than that used for quill pens. 2. To be careful 
to bear equally on both nibs. And lastly, always to clean them 
carefully from ink after using them, or the best metal pens 
will soon be destroyed. 

Writing Ink. —Various receipts have been given for com¬ 
posing writing ink : but few are founded on a knowledge of the 
chemical or other properties of the several ingredients recom¬ 
mended, and of the changes which a course of time and exposure to 
the air may produce. The following receipt is given in the lectures 
of that great chemist, the late Professor Black, of Edinburgh. 
Take in the given proportions, of rasped log-wood 1 ounce; 
of best gall nuts in coarse powder 8 ounces; of gum-arabic in 
powder 2 ounces; of green vitriol 1 ounce; of rain-water 2 quarts ; 
of cloves in coarse powder 1 drachm. Boil the water, with the 
log-wood and gum, down to one half; strain the hot decoction 
into a glazed vessel; add the galls and cloves; mix the whole 
well, and cover it up. When nearly cold, add the green vitriol, 
and stir the infusion repeatedly. After some days, decant or 
strain the ink into a bottle, to be kept close corked, in a dark 
place. 

The following receipt is given by an eminent chemist in France, 
where, of late years, the beauty and durability of writing ink 
have become objects of careful and scientific inquiry. Take of 
Aleppo galls in coarse powder 8 ounces ; of log-wood in thin chips 
4 ounces; of green copperas 4 ounces; of gum-arabic in pow¬ 
der 8 ounces' of blue vitriol ^ ounce; of sugar-candy 1 ounce. 


n 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


Boil trie log-wood and galls together in 12 pounds of water, for 
one hour, or till the liquid be evaporated. Strain the decoction 
through a hair sieve or linen cloth, and then add the other ingre¬ 
dients, stir the mixture till the whole be dissolved, particularly the 
gum; after which leave it to subside for twenty-four hours. Then 
decant the ink, and preserve it in bottles of glass or stone-ware well 
corked. Ink is often of a pale colour when first used, but it 
grows black when exposed to the air. This is owing to its 
uniting with the oxygen, the principle of acidity, and one of the 
component principles of our atmosphere : for the iron in the green 
vitriol not being saturated with oxygen, it absorbs still more 
from *he air, and is then converted into red oxyde, or what we 
call rust. 

Red hik is usually made as follows :—Take of the raspings of 
Brazil-wood a quarter of a pound, and infuse them for two or 
three days in vinegar; boil the infusion afterwards for an hour, 
over a gentle fire, and filter it while hot. Set it again on the fire, and 
dissolve in it, first, half an ounce of gum-arabic, and afterwards, of 
alum and white sugar, each half an ounce. 

Printing Ink is in fact a black paint, composed of lamp-black 
and linseed or sweet oil, boiled so as to acquire considerable con¬ 
sistence and tenacity. The art of preparing this ink is kept a 
secret; but the obtaining of proper lamp-black seems to be the 
principal requisite in its composition. 

Copper-plate printers use an ink different from the above, in 
the oil not being so much boiled, and that Frankfort black is 
used for lamp-black. 

Besides the foregoing kinds of ink, of indispensable use in the 
affairs of life, others are sometimes employed for secret writing, 
generally for amusement, but which may, on particular occasions, 
be really useful. Thus, for instance, the infusion of galls and a 
solution of green vitroil, will produce a black colour; if, therefore, 
you write with one of the liquids, and then apply the other to it, 
the black colour will be produced, just as if the ingredients had 
been mingled before they were applied to the paper. 

Other changes of the colours of substances are produced, by 
exposure to the air and the fire, agreeably to the nature of chemical 
combinations.—Write with an infusion of gall nuts, and when you 
wish the writing to appear, dip it in a solution of green vitriol, or, 
as it is commonly called, copperas, when the writing will become 
black.—Dissolve some sugar of lead (white lead dissolved in 
vinegar and evaporated) in water, and write with the liquor. 
When dry no writing will be visible. To make it appear, wet the 
paper with a solution of liver of sulphur, (sulphur and potash 


WRITING. 23 

mixed together,) and the characters will appear immediately of' a 
brown colour. It will be enough only to expose the writing to 
the vapour of this solution.—Write with a solution of gold in aqua- 
regia, (nitro-muriatic acid,) a compound of aqua fortis and spirits 
of sea-salt, and let the paper dry slowly in the shade. In this 
state, no writing will be seen; but if a sponge be drawn over it, 
containing tin dissolved in aqua regia, the letters will immediately 
appear of a purple colour. 

Another mode of secret writing has often been employed in 
conveying intelligence from ambassadors and ministers in foreign 
parts, to their own courts. This is by the means of ciphers, or 
marks previously agreed upon, between the parties in the corre¬ 
spondence, to whom alone their import is known. In the early times 
of Greece, we are told that the Lacedaemonians corresponded with 
their generals in the field, by means of a very simple, though secret 
contrivance. The magistrates caused to be provided two pieces of 
wood, perfectly round, and of precisely the same thickness, about 
six feet long. One of the batons was given to the general, 
and the other remained with the magistrates. When a communi¬ 
cation was to be made between the parties, a long piece of parch¬ 
ment was rolled in a spiral or screw form, from one end of the 
roller to the other; and upon it the information or orders were 
written, running across the folds of the parchment, which was then 
taken off the roller and sent to the other party, who applying it 
accurately to his own roller, was able to read the communication, 
which to those who were ignorant of the size of the roller would 
be totally unintelligible. 

As the writing in cipher is become an art of importance, the 
counterpart is still more so, namely, the art of deciphering, or 
reading secret characters. As the characters, or marks, chosen 
at pleasure by the parties who employ the cipher, seem to be 
entirely arbitrary, it would appear impossible to discover their 
meaning by the most careful examination ; but as in all languages, 
certain letters, syllables, and words, occur much oftener than others, 
if the language in which the cipher is written can be discovered, a 
man much practised in writing or reading one kind of cipher will 
be able to penetrate the meaning of almost any other that can be 
employed. No man, perhaps, attained to a greater proficiency in the 
art of deciphering than the celebrated geometrician, Dr. Wallis. 
So skilful and expert had he become, as to be able to write out 
the words of papers written in cipher, and in a language with which 
he was totally unacquainted. Having written out the words, the 
language was soon known, and the secret contents unfolded. 


24 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Section IV.— Short Hand. 

This species of writing, often called stenography, was known and 
practised by most of the ancient civilized nations. After the in¬ 
troduction of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which occupied a con¬ 
siderable space, a more concise mode of writing seems to have been 
introduced, in which only apart of the symbol or picture was drawn. 
From them the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans, adopted 
different methods of abbreviating their words and sentences, suited 
to their respective languages. The initials, the finals, or radicals, 
often served for whole words; and various combinations of these 
sometimes formed a sentence. Arbitrary marks were likewise 
employed to determine their meaning, and to assist legibility ; and 
it seems probable that every writer, and every author of antiquity, 
had some peculiar method of abbreviation, calculated to facilitate 
the expression of his own sentiments, and intelligible only to him¬ 
self. In every language of Europe, till about the close of the 
sixteenth century, the Roman plan of abbreviating, (viz. substitut¬ 
ing the initials or radicals, with the help of arbitrages, for words) 
appears to have been employed. Hitherto, no regular alphabet had 
been invented expressly for stenography, when about that period 
an English gentleman of the name of Willis, invented and published 
one. His plan was soon altered and improved, and at intervals, 
for a series of years past, some men of ingenuity and application 
have composed and published systems of stenography; but among 
the various methods that have been proposed, and the different 
plans that have been adopted by individuals, none have yet ap¬ 
peared sufficiently simple and efficient to gain universal approbation. 

The ingenious system of Gurney, practised and published sixty 
years ago, but much improved by his descendants of the present 
day, is esteemed to be among the most rational. Still this system, 
with all its excellences, is not devoid of certain defects, inseparable 
from the employment of marks, signs, and characters, founded not 
so much upon philosophical principles, as upon the voluntary and 
arbitrary taste and choice of the founder. A near approach to a 
character, conveying to the eye of readers of all countries.a distinct 
notion of its meaning, although on a very limited scale, has been 
made on the marks and signs adopted in the modern system ot 
chemistry. Every simple substance has there its peculiar repre¬ 
sentative sign ; and the compounds of various substances are de¬ 
noted by a complex sign, made up of the simple signs, representing 
each component ingredient. It is said that a nearer approach to 
an universal character, intelligible and practicable by men of all 


WRITING. 25 

nations, lias for many years been preparing for the public eye, in 
this country; in which grammatical accuracy, simplicity, and dis¬ 
tinctness, are most ingeniously combined with inconceivable facility 
and rapidity of execution. By the use of a dot, or other simple 
mark, applied in a particular way, the several parts of speech, 
the voices, moods, and tenses of verbs, &c., can be expressed 
upon paper, with sufficient speed to enable a writer, acquainted 
with the system, to keep pace with any public speaker whatever. 
According to the modes of short-hand hitherto used, few men 
have ever been able to take accurately down every word that fell 
from the speaker’s lips; and those few who, by dint of long and 
incessant practice, have attained so desirable a proficiency in their 
art, have employed a multitude of arbitrary marks drawn from 
their own fancy, with which by constant use they became familiar. 
Of the meaning of many of those marks, all others but the in¬ 
ventor being generally ignorant, it has often happened that, at the 
decease of the writer, his contractions and signs have remained 
quite unintelligible. Of this a remarkable instance occurred some 
time ago in Scotland, where a celebrated mathematician, intending 
in his old age to publish the geometrical lucubrations of his 
younger days, drawn up in a, short-hand of his own invention, (but 
which he had long disused,) was constrained to abandon the pro¬ 
ject, to his mortification and the public loss, being utterly unable 
to read his own contractions and marks, and no longer in a con¬ 
dition to resume the course of studies necessary to reproduce the 
work. 


Section V.— The Telegraph. 

This invention may with great propriety be noticed in this 
place, as one of the methods by which intelligence can be com¬ 
municated to the mind, by means of the eye, and that at a great 
distance. There is reason to believe, that amongst the Greeks 
there was some sort of telegraph in use. The Chinese, when they 
send couriers on the great canal, or when any great man travels 
there, make signals by fire from one day’s journey to another, to 
have every thing prepared ; and most of the barbarous nations 
used formerly to give the. alarm of war by fires lighted on the hills 
or rising grounds. In the year 1663, the Marquess of Worcester, 
in his Century of Inventions, affirmed that he had discovered “a 
method by which at a window, as far as my eye can discover black 
from white, a man may hold discourse with his correspondent, 
without noise made or notice taken ; being, according to occasion 
given, or means afforded, ex re rata, and no need of provision 

E 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


*6 

beforehand; though much better if foreseen, and course taken by 
mutual consent of parties.” About forty years afterwards, in 
France, M. Amontons proposed a new telegraph. His method 
was this. Let there be people placed in several stations, at a 
certain distance from one another, that by the help of a telescope 
a man in one station may see a signal made in the next before 
him; he must immediately make the same signal, that it may be 
seen by persons in the next after him, who are to communicate it 
to those in the following station, &c. It was not, however, till 
the French revolution, that the telegraph was applied generally to 
useful purposes. Whether M.Chappe, who is said to have invented 
the telegraph first used by the French, about the end of 1793, 
knew any thing of Amontons’s invention or not, it is impossible 
to say ; but his telegraph was constructed on principles nearly 
similar. Since this time, various kinds of telegraphs have been 
used in France, and other countries on the continent: but that 
adopted in this kingdom differs in outward form from them all. 
The following is its general principle, subject, however, to modi¬ 
fications, according to circumstances :— 

A long wooden frame, like the case of a large door or window, 
is divided from top to bottom by another strong piece of timber, 
parting the frame as it were into two leaves of a door. Each of 
these is divided into three parts by small shutters, movable upon 
hinges placed in the uprights, so as to be fixed in any position, 
perpendicular or horizontal, by means of wires and springs com¬ 
municating with the room below the machine, where are placed 
the managers of the telegraph. When any communication is to 
be made, all the six shutters are drawn up perpendicularly, so as to 
fill the whole frame. When the telegraph next in course to the 
first has given sign of being prepared, by likewise closing up the 
frame, the manager of the first begins by opening all the shutters 
but those which, by previous agreement, are to express certan 
words or sentences, and the second telegraph repeats the same 
motions of the shutters, which are immediately repeated by the third 
in the chain, and so on to the extremity, where the communica¬ 
tion is to be finally ntade. By this contrivance, news or 
orders may be conveyed through a long chain of telegraphs, with¬ 
out the slightest chance of their being known to any persons but 
to those at the beginning and the end: for the intermediate 
stations have only to imitate the operations of the first. The 
number of shutters in the telegraph being only six, it may perhaps 
be perceived that but few variations of intelligence can be con¬ 
veyed by that number ; it is, however, a matter of positive calcu¬ 
lation, that by these, every thing that can be necessary to 


4 


WRITING. 27 

communicate in that rapid way, may be certainly expressed. If 
the bells in a steeple be four, the changes that may be rung 
upon them are 24 : but if six, the changes will amount to no fewer 
than 720. This calculation is not, however, wholly applicable to 
the telegraph ; because it is not enough that six words can change 
places many times, for they must also be so arranged as to form 
some sense. By this the combinations are exceedingly restricted ; 
besides that, the great variety of matter on which it may be 
necessary to make communications, must require various sets and 
classes of terms, to be used as occasions shall present themselves. 
By means of lights suspended in certain positions, intelligence 
may be conveyed in the night-time, as well as by the common 
telegraph in the day. 

* + * 

Section VI.— Superscriptions and Addresses for 

Letters, & r c. 

ROYAL FAMILY. 

To the King’s "Most Excellent Majesty.— Sire ; or, May it please 
your Majesty. 

To the Queen’s Most Excellent Majesty.— Madam ; or, May it 
please your Majesty. 

To His Royal Highness the Duke of Sussex.— May it please 
your Royal Highness. 

And in like manner to any other of the Royal Family, varying 
only the title and sex. 

NOBILITY. 

To His Grace the Duke of A.— My Lord Duke; Your Grace . 

To the Most Hon. the Marquess of A.— My Lord Marquess; 
Your lordship. 

Marquesses have been very generally, for some time past, styled 
Most Noble; but this is incorrect, and the Garter King at 
Arms invariably styles them Most Honourable. When the title 
is taken from the name of a place, as Winchester, Shrewsbury, &c. 
we say the Marquess of Winchester, the Earl of Shrewsbury; if 
from the name of a family, as W ellesley, Spencer, &c. the word “of 1 
is omitted, and we say the Marquess Wellesley; the Earl Spencer. 

To the Right Hon. the Earl of A. To the Right Hon. Lord 
Viscount B. To the Right Hon. Lord G.— jSI y Lord; Your 
Lordship. 

It has been customary of late to omit the titles of Most 
Honourable, Right Honourable, &c., and merely to write.—To 


YOUNG man’s companion. 


38 

the Marquess of Lansdowne, or To the Earl of Cardigan; but the 
former style is the most respectful. 

The ladies of Noblemen are addressed in terms according to 
the rank of their husbands. The title of Lord and Right. Hon. 
is given, by courtesy, to all the sons of Dukes and Marquesses; 
and the title of Lady to all their daughters. 


GENTRY. 

To the Hon. Sir A. B., Bart, at C., near D. 

To the Hon. Sir A. B., Knight, at C., in Suffolk. 

To A.B., Esq. at M., in Cheshire. 

The wives of Knights and Baronets are called Lady A., ol 
Lady B.; but the wives of Esquires, and other Gentlemen, only 
Mistress A., &c.; except they have a title previously to their 
marriage, which they commonly retain. 

Every considerable servant to the King, on the Civil or Mili¬ 
tary List, or to any of the Royal Family, is styled Esquire. As 
this title is now given also to every man of respectability, the only 
distinction to be made in favour of persons who are considered as 
entitled to superior consideration, is the addition of, &c. &c. &c. to 
the superscription. 

It is also deemed more respectful to write the word Esquire in 
full length, as, To G. G. Harcourt, Esquire, &c. &c. &c. 

The persons legally entitled to the rank of Esquire are the 
eldest sons of Knights, and their eldest sons in perpetual suc¬ 
cession ; the eldest sons of the younger sons of Peers, and their 
eldest sons, in like succession ; Esquires by virtue of their office, 
as Justices of the Peace; and Esquires of Knights of the Bath, 
each of whom constitutes three at his installation; to these may 
be added all those who are styled Esquires by the King in their 
commissions and appointments; all, indeed, who are in any w r ay 
once honoured by the King with the title have a right to that 
distinction for life: thus Captains in the Army are Esquires, 
because they happened to be so styled in their commission, which 
is signed by the King; but Captains in the Navy, though of higher 
military rank, are not entitled to this distinction, their commissions 
being signed by the Lords of the Admiralty. 

Barristers have long assumed this title, and Mr. Christian, 
in his Notes to Blackstone, relates a ridiculous anecdote of a 
judge refusing to receive an affidavit, in which a Barrister was 
named without the title ; but their claim to this distinction is 
unfounded. 


29 


WRITING. 


PARLIAMENT. 

To the Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of 
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in 
Parliament assembled. 

To the Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of 
Gieat Britain and Ireland, in Parliament assembled. 

THE CHURCH. 

To His Grace the Lord Archbishop of Canterbury.— My Lord 
Archbishop. 

The style of address to the Archbishop of Armagh is,—To 
His Grace the Lord Primate of Ireland. That of the other Irish 
Archbishops is similar to the English. 

The clerical style of all Archbishops is, Most Reverend; but the 
above mode of address is that generally used, even by the clergy. 

To the Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Chichester.— My 
Lord Bishop. 

It has been customary, of late, to omit the title of Right 
Reverend, and merely to write, To the Lord Bishop of Chiches¬ 
ter ; but the former style is the most respectful. 

The Bishops of Sodor and Man, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Cal¬ 
cutta, Madras, Bombay, Jamaica, and Barbadoes, are addressed in 
the same manner as those of England. 

Bishops of the Episcopalian Church in Scotland, and in the 
United States of America, are addressed by name, without the 
title of Lord.—To the Rev. Edmund Cartwright, D.D.; or, To 
the Rev. Dr. Cartwright. 

There are many cases where clergymen, having taken the 
degree of Doctor of Laws, assume the designation of Reverend 
Doctor,—a title properly belonging to Doctors of Divinity alone. 
The superscription should be thus:—To the Rev. James Stainer 
Clarke, D.C.L. 

Doctors, not being clergymen, whether of Law, Medicine, or 
Music, usually have the title prefixed to their name, as Dr. 
Phillimore, Dr. Ashburner, or Dr. Bushy; but the following is 
the most correct:—To Joseph Phillimore, Esq., LL.D. To 
John Ashburner, Esq., M.D. To- Bushy, Esq., M.D. 

To the Very Reverend the Dean of Canterbury.— Mr. Dean ; or. 
Reverend Sir. 

To the Venerable the Archdeacon Bathurst.— Mr. Archdeacon ; 
or, Reverend Sir 



30 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


If a Bisliop, or other clergyman, possess the title of Right 
Honourable, or Honourable, it is prefixed to his clerical title. 

OFFICERS OF THE ROYAL HOUSEHOLD. 

These are generally addressed according to their rank and 
quality ; but sometimes according to their office,—as, My Lord 
Steward ; My Lord Chamberlain ; Mr. Comptroller; Mr. Vice- 
Chamberlain. 

In superscriptions of letters that relate to gentlemen's employ¬ 
ments, their style of office ought never to be omitted. 

OFFICERS OF THE CIVIL LIST. 

To Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for the Foreign Depart¬ 
ment. 

To Her Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the Home 
Department. 

To the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury. 

To the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. 

To the Principal Officers of Her Majesty’s Ordnance. 

To the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Customs. 

To the Commissioners of Her Majesty's Revenue of Excise, ixc. 

I THE ARMY. 

To the Hon. A. B., Esq., Lieutenant-General: Major-General: 

Brigadier-General of Her Majesty’s Forces. 

To the Right Hon. A., Earl of B., Captain of Her Majesty’s 
First Troop of Horse Guards. 

To the Hon. Colonel A. B. To Major A. To Captain A., &c. 
To the Principal Officers of Her Majesty’s Ordnance. 

THE NAVY. 

To His Grace A., Duke of B., Lord High Admiral of Great 
Britain. 

To the Right Hon. A.,—Lord Viscount B.,—Vice, or Rear- 
Admiral of Great Britain. 

To the Right Hon. Sir A. B., Admiral of the Blue : Vice- 
Admiral of the Red: Rear-Admiral of the White. 

To Captain A. B., Commander of Her Majesty’s Ship the 
Liberty, riding at Spithead, &c. 


31 


writing. 

AMBASSADORS. 

English, as well as Foreign Ambassadors, merely have Excel¬ 
lency prefixed to their other titles, with the addition of their 
accredited rank. 

Au stria. —To His Excellency the Right Hon. Sir Frederick 
Lamb, G.C.B., H.B.M. Ambassador Extraordinary and Pleni¬ 
potentiary at the Court of Vienna. 

Russia. —To His Excellency the Right Hon. Sir Stratford 
Canning, H B.M. Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipoten¬ 
tiary at the Court of St. Petersburg. 

France. —To His Excellency the Right Hon. the Earl Gran¬ 
ville, G.C.B., H.B.M. Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipo¬ 
tentiary to His Most Christian Majesty. 

Spain. —To G. W. T. Villiers, Esq., Envoy Extraordinary 
and Minister Plenipotentiary to Her Catholic Majesty. 

Holland. —To His Excellency the Right Hon. Sir diaries 
Bagot, G.C.B., H.B.M. Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipo¬ 
tentiary to His Majesty the King of Holland. 

Persia. —To Sir J. N. R. Campbell, H.B.M. Charge 
d'Affaires to His Majesty the King of Persia. 

America. —To the Right Hon. Sir diaries R. Vaughan, 
H.B.M. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to 
tlie United States of America. 

the law. 

To the Right Hon. the Lord High Chancellor. 

To the Right Hon. the Lord Chief Justice of the Court of 
Queen’s Bench. 

To the Right Hon. the Lord Chief Justice of the Court of 
Common Pleas. 

To H is Honour the Master of the Rolls. 

To His Honour the Vice-Chancellor. 

To the Right Hon. the Lord Chief Baron of the Court of 
Exchequer. 

To the Lion. Mr. Baron Williams. 

To Mr. Seijcant Onslow, M.P. 

LIEUTENANCY AND MAGISTRACY. 

To the Right Hon. A., Earl of B., Lord Lieutenant and 
Custos Rotulorum of the County of M. 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


To A. B., Esq., High Sheriff of the County of M. 

To the Right Hon. Sir A. B., Knight, Lord Mayor of the 
City of London. 

To the Right Worshipful Sir A. R., Recorder of the City of 
London. 

To the Right Worshipful A. B., Esq., Alderman of Tower 
Ward, London. 

To the Worshipful A. B.. Esq., Mayor of L. 


GOVERNORS UNDER THE CROWN, ETC. 

To His Excellency A.,—Lord B.,—Lord Lieutenant of the 
Kingdom of Ireland.— Your Excellency. 

To their Excellencies the Lords Justices of the Kingdom of 
I reland .—Yo ur Excellencies. 

To the Right Hon. A., Earl of B., Governor of Dover Castle, 
and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports .—My Lord. Your 
Lordship. 

To the Right Hon. Lord Viscount B., Constable of the Tower. 

The second Governors of Colonies appointed by the King, are 
styled Lieutenant-Governors ; those appointed by Proprietors, as 
the East India Company, &c. are called Deputy-Governors. 

\ INCORPORATE BODIES. 

To the Hon. the Court of Directors of the United Companv of 
Merchants of England, trading to the East Indies. 

To the Hon. the Sub-Governor, Deputy-Governor, and Direc¬ 
tors of the South-Sea Company. 

To the Hon. the Governor, Deputy-Governor, and Directors of 
the Bank of England. 

To the Masters and Wardens of the Worshipful Company of 
Drapers. 


MEN OF TRADE AND PROFESSIONS. 

To Mr. A. B., Merchant, Broad-street, London. 

To Dr. W. C., Hanover-square, London. 

To Mr. H. J., Surgeon, Broad-street, London. 

To Mr. L. 0., Pewterer, Whitechapel, London. 

To Mr. P. A., Rope Maker, Wapping, near London. 


CHAPTER III. 

GRAMMAR. 


Grammar has been very properly defined, the art of writing 
and speaking any language with propriety. It has been divided 
into two parts—general or universal grammar, which, discussing the 
subject in a philosophical manner, unfolds the origin and nature 
of language in general; and particular grammar, which treats of 
the rules of any particular languages. 

Section I.— General or Universal Grammar. 

This part of grammar, if fully discussed, would lead us too far 
into abstruse and philosophical inquiries, to comport with the 
nature and object of the present work ; we shall, therefore, be 
content with a few brief observations. General or universal 
grammar leads us first to advert to the origin of language. This 
is a subject which has employed much learned investigation, and 
on which a great diversity of opinion still exists. Language being 
the leading instrument by which men communicate their thoughts 
to one another, it is to this we undoubtedly owe the most impor¬ 
tant improvements of which our intellectual character is suscept¬ 
ible. Man is endowed not merely with sensations, but with the 
faculty of reasoning; and simple inarticulate sounds being insuf¬ 
ficient for expressing all the various modifications of thought, or 
for distinguishing between the different sensations of pain or of 
pleasure, articulation, by which those simple sounds are modified, 
and a particular meaning fixed to each modification, is absolutely 
necessary to man. By means of it formed into language, he 
communicates, with facility, all that diversity of ideas with which 
his mind is stored. Sounds, when thus modified, are called 
words; and as words have confessedly no natural relation to the 
ideas of which they are significant, the use of them must either 
have been the result of human sagacity, or have been suggested to 
the first man by the Author of his being. Whether language be 
of divine or human origin, is a question it is unnecessary here to 
discuss : upon either supposition the first language must have been 
extremely vague and limited. If it was of human contrivance, 
this will be readily granted ; for what art was ever invented. 




and brought to a state of perfection, by man in an untutored 
state ? If it was taught by God, we cannot suppose that it would 
be more comprehensive than the ideas of those for whose imme¬ 
diate use it was intended. 

The parts of speech, viewed in reference not to any particular' 
language, but to grammar in general, have been variously enume¬ 
rated, not only as to their number, but in their general arrange¬ 
ment. In some instances, these distinctions are readily decided 
by the character of the different languages. The Latin, for 
instance, has no word exactly corresponding to the article 6, ri, 
ro, in the Greek, and the, in English. Those, therefore, who 
consider these words as the only definite articles in these two lan¬ 
guages, will consider the Latin language as possessing no such 
word. But, independently of any difference originating in the 
language itself, some grammarians have called in question the pro¬ 
priety of distinctions maintained by most others. They have 
ranked together all the parts of speech, under a few general heads, 
and thus annihilated distinctions which have been sanctioned by 
the general usage of almost all nations and ages on which the 
light of science has shone. This generalization has been carried 
to the greatest length, in the Diversions of Purley, by the cele¬ 
brated John Horne Tooke. This author reckons the noun and 
the verb the only essential parts of speech. He does not, hov r - 
ever, acquiesce in the views of Mr. Harris, who, in his Llermes, 
<^lso sets out with a twofold division of the subject. Mr. Harris 
considers the adverb, the preposition, and the conjunction, as 
merely subsidiary and inferior materials, which connect the other 
parts of speech, and give ornament and fulness of expression to 
the whole ; while Mr. Tooke considers them, in every instance in 
which they are used, as equally essential with nouns and verbs, 
and refuses them a separate rank only because they are possessed 
of the same character with one or other of these parts of speech. 
But whatever may be the divisions of particular writers on this 
branch, in most languages, probably in all cultivated languages, 
the generality of grammarians distinguish the following: noun, 
pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction. In addi¬ 
tion to these, the Latin and English grammarians admit the interjec¬ 
tion among the parts of speech, although it is confessedly not ne¬ 
cessary to the construction of the sentence, being only thrown in 
to express the affection of the speaker. In the Greek and 
English tongues, there is also the article prefixed to nouns, when 
they signify the common names of things, to point them out, and 
to show how far their signification extends. In the method of 
arrangement commonly followed in grammars, adjectives are 


GRAMMAR. 


35 ' 

classed with substantives, and both are denominated nouns; but it 
is certain that, when examined philologically, an essential difference 
is discovered between them. 

In what manner, or at what period, the different languages of 
the world were gradually formed and perfected, we are not in¬ 
formed by the sacred writers; nor is there any authentic history 
extant in which this inquiry can be answered, with any degree of 
certainty, till a much later period. "The classical remains of 
Grecian and Roman literature, prove that these languages had, at 
one time, attained a state of perfection, which could be the result 
only of ages of civilization and literary culture; and it is probable 
that on these models, with some modifications suited to the genius 
of each, the grammars of the modern European languages have 
been gradually formed. The effects produced by conquerors, 
who settle in any particular country, are in few respects more per¬ 
ceptible than in the change introduced by conquest into the 
language of the original inhabitants. This observation is fully 
confirmed by the history of England ; for the Saxons, after they 
had subdued the native Britons, introduced into the country their 
own language, which was a dialect of the ancient Teutonic, the 
parent of the present languages of Germany and the Low Countries. 
No alteration in the language of England occurred, after this 
event, for six hundred years, until the Conquest, in 1066, by 
William of Normandy, who promoted another change, by causing 
Norman French to be used, even in the courts of justice. The 
original British tongue, the Saxon, and the old French, are there¬ 
fore the sources of the modem English ; but augmented, from 
time t(5 time, by the influx of Latin and Greek terms, with 
which commerce, the cultivation of learning, and the progress of 
the arts, have made us familiar. 

From the countries which have supplied us with improvements 
in knowledge and art, we have also drawn the terms belonging 
to them. Thus, in music, sculpture, and painting, the terms 
are borrowed from Italy, where these arts have been carried to 
the highest perfection. The names and phrases employed in 
navigation, were received from the inhabitants of k landers and 
Holland. France has supplied us with the language of fortification 
and military affairs, which she herself originally borrowed from 
Italy. The language of mathematics and philosophy is formed 
upon the Greek and Latin. The Saxon, and a few remains of the 
original British or Celtic, furnish most of the words in common use, 
as well as those employed in agriculture, and in several mechanic 
arts. The English language is now spoken, or understood, over 
a greater extent of the world than any other. Besides the British 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


£6 

Isles in Europe, it is the common tongue of the whole of the 
civilized parts of the United States of North America, also in 
many parts of Canada, and the British American islands. In 
Asia, English is the speech of the masters of India, ruling over 
a prodigious population, exceeding fifty millions. In the newly 
formed settlements in the great Southern Ocean, in New Holland, 
&c. it is the only language in use. With French and German, 
however, a traveller will more commodiously make his wav over 
the continent of Europe. 

Section II. —English Grammar. 

The Grammar of the English, or any other particular tongue, 
applies the principles of universal grammar to that tongue, accord¬ 
ing to the custom and usage established in it, by the best practice. 
Grammar treats of sentences, and of the several parts of which 
sentences are composed: sentences consist of words: words are 
formed by one or more syllables: syllables contain one letter, or 
several letters. Hence letters, syllables, words, and sentences, 
make up the whole of the grammar of any language. 

English Grammar, after the celebrated Murray, whose system 
we shall follow in the present chapter, is usually divided into four 
parts: —Orthography, or the form and sound of letters, the 
combination of letters into syllables, and syllables into words;— 
Etymology, or the different sorts of words, their various modifi¬ 
cations, and their derivations; —Syntax, or the union and right 
order of words in the formation of a sentence;—and, lastly 
Prosody, or the just pronunciation, and poetical construction of 
sentences. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography includes a knowledge of the sounds and powers of 
letters, syllables, and words, and lies at the foundation of all grammar. 

Letters are the expression of any simple sound, or modi¬ 
fication of sounds, or of the articulate utterance of the human voice, 
regulated by the organs of speech. 

The letters of the English language, called the English 
Alphabet, are twenty-six in number, as follow :— 

roman characters. 

abcdefghtjklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

ITALIC. 

A B C D E F G HIJKL MN O PQR s T U V WX YZ 

abode f g h ij k l m n o p q r s t u 'o w x y z» 



GRAMMAR. 


ST 


■SOUND OF EACH LETTER. 


ai, bee, see, dee, ee, ef, jee, aitch, eye, jay, kay, el, em, en, o, pee, 
cue, ar, ess, tee, you, vee, double-u, eks, wy, zed. 

Sounds, and consequently letters, are naturally divided into two 
classes ; the one produced by a simple emission of the voice, as, 
a, 0 , which may be lengthened or continued at pleasure. This class 
proceeding only from the voice, is therefore, from the Latin term 
for voice, called vowels. The other class of letters representing 
certain restraints, or modifications of simple sounds, can be pro¬ 
nounced only by the help of some vowel before or after them, and 
are therefore called consonants, from two Latin words, shmifvinor to 
sound together. 

When the vowels are brought together, so that each is sounded 
so quickly that the two together seem to form one sound com¬ 
posed of the two in succession, or that out of the two is 
formed a third sound different from both, these combinations of 
vowels are termed diphthongs, from two Greek words, signifying a 
double sound. 

For example, a diphthong is the union of the two vowels ea in 
beat, ou in sound. A triphthong, which is formed on the same 
principles, is the union of three vowels ; as eau in beau, iew in 
view. 

A Syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, pro¬ 
nounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word, 
or part of a word ; as, a, an , ant. 

Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, 
or of expressing a word by its proper letters. 

Words. —A word of one syllable is a monosyllable; of two, 
a dissyllable; of three, a trisyllable ; of four or more, a poly¬ 
syllable. 

All words are either primitive, or derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any simplex 
word in the language; as, man , good , content , York. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to another 
word in English of greater simplicity ; as, manful , goodness , con- 
tentmentf Yorkshire. 

The English language abounds with derivative and compound 
words, which occasion some difficulty in the orthography, but a 
careful attention to the rules and examples in Murray’s Grammar, 
or in most orthographical exercises, will enable the learner to 
acquire a habit of spelling with correctness. 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


as 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their various 
Aiodifications, and their derivation. 

There are in English nine sorts of words; or, as they are com¬ 
monly called, Parts of Speech. 

1. The Article, prefixed to substantives, to point them out, and 
to show how far their signification extends. 

2. The Substantive, or Noun, which is the name of any thing 
that exists, or of which we have any notion. 

3. The Adjective, added to a substantive, to express its 
quality. 

4. The Pronoun, used instead of a noun, to avoid the too 
frequent repetition of the same word. 

5. The Verb, a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer. 

6. The Adverb, joined to a verb, an adjective, and sometimes 
to another verb, to express some quality or circumstance re¬ 
specting it. 

7. The Preposition, which serves to connect words with one 
another, and to show the relation between them. 

8. The Conjunction, chiefly used to connect sentences, so as 
out of two or more sentences to make but one. 

9. The Interjection, thrown in between the parts of a sentence, 
to express the passions cr emotions of the speaker. 

ARTICLE. 

An Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point them 
■out, and to show how far their signification extends ; as, a garden, 
an eagle, the woman. 

In English, there are but two articles, a and the; a becomes 
an before a vowel, and before, a silent h ; as, an acorn, an hour. 
Put if "the h be sounded, the a only is to be used; as, a hand, 
a heart, a highway. 

A or an is styled the indefinite article: it is used in a vague 
sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects 
indeterminate ; as, “ Give me a book “ Bring me an apple.” 

The is called the definite article, because it ascertains what 
particular thing or things are meant; as, “Give me the book;” 
“ Bring me the apples ;” meaning some particular book or apples 
referred to. 

A substantive without any article to limit it, is generally taken in 
its widest sense ; as, “A candid temper is proper for man ;” that 
is, for all mankind. 


GRAMMAR. 


3? 


SUBSTANTIVE. 


A Substantive or Noun is the name of any thing that exists, or 
of which we have any notion; as, London, man, virtue. 

Substantives are either proper or common. Proper names or 
substantives are the names appropriated to individuals; as, 
George, Charlotte , London, Thames. Common names or sub¬ 
stantives stand for kinds containing many sorts, or for sorts con¬ 
taining many individuals under them ; as, animal, man, tree, &c. 

To substantives belong gender, number, and case. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. There 
are three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes animals of the male kind; as, a 
man, a horse, a bull. 

The feminine gender signifies animals of the female kind; as, a 
woman, a duck , a hen. 

'The neuter gender denotes objects which are neither male nor 
female; as, a field, a house, a garden. Some substantives naturally 
neuter are, by a figure of speech, converted into the masculine or 
feminine gender; as when we say of the sun, he is setting, and 
of a ship, she sails well, &c. 

The English language has three methods of distinguishing the 
sex, namely: 


1. By different 

words; as, 



MALE. 

FEMALE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

Bachelor, 

Maid. 

Husband, 

Wife. 

Boy, 

Girl. 

Lad, 

Lass. 

%. By a differen 

ce of termination ; as, 


MALE. 

FEMALE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

Actor, 

Actress. 

Lion, 

Lioness. 

Bridegroom, 

Bride. 

Poet, 

Poetess. 

3. By a noun, 

pronoun, or 

adjective, being 

prefixed to the 


FEMALE. 

A hen-sparrow. 
A maid-servant. 


substantive; as, 

MALE. 

A cock-sparrow, 

A man-servant, 

Number is the consideration of an object as one or more. 
Substantives are of two numbers, the singular and the plural. 
The singular number expresses but one object; as, a chair, a 
table, a box, a wife. 

The plural number signifies more objects than one; as, chairs, 
tables, boxes, wives. 




40 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they express, 
are used only in the singular ; others only in the plural form : as, 
wheat, pitch, gold , sloth , pride , &c. ; and bellows, scissors, lungs, 
riches, &c. 

Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, 
swine, &c. 

Case.' —English substantives have three cases, the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

Idle nominative case simply expresses the name of a thing, or 
the subject of the verb ; as, u The boy plays “ The girls learn.” 

The possessive case expresses the relation of property or pos¬ 
session, and has an apostrophe, with the letter s coming after it; 
as, “ The scholar s duty 44 Mv father s house.” 

When the plural ends in s the other s is omitted, but the 
.apostrophe is retained; as, 44 On eagles wings ; the drapers 
company. 11 

Sometimes also, when the singular terminates in s, the apo- 
strophic s is not added ; as, “ For goodness sake ; for righteous¬ 
ness sake.” 

The objective case expresses the object of an action, or of a re¬ 
lation ; and generally follows a verb active, or a preposition; as, 
“ John assists Charles; they live in London .” 

English substantives are declined in the following manner:— 



SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nominative case. 

A mother. 

Mothers. 

Possessive case. 

A mother’s. 

Mothers 1 . 

Objective case. 

A mother. 

Mothers. 

Nominative case. 

The man. 

The men. 

Possessive case. 

The man’s. 

The men’s. 

Objective case. 

The man. 

The men. 


ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to express its 
quality; as, “ An industrious man “ A virtuous woman 
44 A benevolent mind.” 

In English, the adjective is not varied on account of gender, 
number, or case. Thus we say, 44 A careless boy ; careless girls.” 
The only variation which it admits is that of the degrees of com¬ 
parison. 

There are commonly reckoned three degrees of comparison; 
the positive, comparative, and superlative. 

The positive state expresses the quality of an object, without 
any increase or diminution ; as, good, wise, great. 





GUAM MA K. 


41 


Tlic comparative degree increases the positive in signification ; 
as, better, wiser, greater. 

The superlative degree increases the positive to the highest 
degree; as, best, wisest, greatest. 


PRONOUN. 


A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too 
frequent repetition of the same word ; as, “ The man is happy, he 
is benevolent, he is useful.” 

There are three kinds of pronouns ; namely, the personal , the 
relative , and the adjective pronouns. 

Personal Pronouns. —There are five personal pronouns; 
namely, I, thou , he, she, it; with their plurals, ice, ye or you, 
they. 

Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and 
case. 

The persons of pronouns are three in each of the numbers, 
namely : 


I, is the first person 

Thou , is the second person 

He, she, or it, is the third person 

We, is the first person 

Ye, or you, is the second person 

They, is the third person 


Singular. 


Plural. 


The number of pronouns, like those of substantives, are 
two, the singular and the plural ; as, I, thou, he; we, ye, they. 

Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the 
pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine ; she is feminine; it is 
neuter. 

Pronouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and 
the objective. 

" The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form diffe¬ 
rent from that of the nominative or the possessive case. 

The Personal Pronouns are thus declined * 


PERSON. 

CASE. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Fii'st. 

Nom. 

I. 

We. 


Possess. 

Mine. 

Ours. 


Obj. 

Me. 

Us. 

Second. 

Nom. 

Thou. 

Ye or you. 


Possess. 

Thine. 

Y ours. 


Obj. 

Thee. 

You. 


42 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


PERSON. 

CASE. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Third Mas. 

Nom. 

He. 

They. 


Possess. 

His. 

Theirs. 


Obj. 

Him. 

Them. 

Third Fern. 

Nom. 

She. 

They. 


Possess. 

Hers. 

Theirs. 


Obj. 

Her. 

Them. 

Third Neuter. 

Nom. 

It. 

They. 


Possess. 

Its. 

Theirs. 


Obj. 

It. 

Them. 


Relative Pronouns are such as relate in general to some 
word or phrase going before, which is thence called the ante¬ 
cedent ; they are, who, which , and that; as, “ The man is happy 
who lives virtuously.” 

What is a kind of compound relative, including both the 
antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which ; 
as, “ This is what I wanted;” that is to say, the thing which I 
wanted. • 

Who is applied to persons, which to animals and inanimate 
things; as, “ He is a friend who is faithful in adversity ;” “ The 
bird which sung so sweetly is flown u This is the tree which 
produces no fruit.” 

That, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too frequent 
repetition of who and which. It is applied to both persons and 
things ; as, “ He that acts wisely deserves praise “ Modesty is 
a quality that highly adorns a woman.” 

Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined : 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL, 

Nominative. Who. 

Possessive. Whose. 

Objective. Whom. 

Who, which, what , are called interrogatives when they are 
used in asking questions ; as, “Who is he ?” “ Which is the book P” 
“ What are you doing ?” 

Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, participating 
the properties both of pronouns and adjectives. 

The adjective pronouns may be subdivided into four sorts, 
namely, the possessive , the distributive , the demonstrative , and 
the indefinite . 

1. The possessive are those which relate to possession or 
property. There are seven of them; namely, my, thy , his, her , 
vur, your , their. 


GRAMMAR. 


43 


£. The distributive are those which denote the persons or 
tilings that make up a number, as taken separately and singly ; 
they are, each, every, either; as, “ Each of his brothers is in a 
favourable situation “ Every man must account for himself 
“ I have not seen either of them.” 

3. The demonstrative are those which precisely point out the 
subjects to which they relate: this and that, these and those, 
are of this class ; as, “ This is true charity, that is only its image. 11 

This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that to the 
more distant; as, “ This man is more intelligent than that .” 

This indicates the latter, or last mentioned; that the former, 
or first mentioned ; as, “Wealth and poverty are both temptations ; 
that tends to excite pride, this discontent. 1 ’ 

4. The indefinite are those which express their subjects in an 
indefinite or general manner. The following are of this kind • 
some, other, any, one, all, such, &c. 


VERB. 


A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer; as, 
“ I am, I rule, I am ruled? 

Verbs are of three kinds ; active, passive, and neuter., 

A verb active expresses an action, and necessarily implies an 
agent, and an object acted upon ; as, to love; “ I love Henry. 11 

A verb passive expresses a passion or a suffering, or the re¬ 
ceiving of an action: and necessarily implies an object acted 
upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon ; as, to be loved ; 
“ Henry is loved by me.” 

A verb neuter expresses neither action nor passion, but being, 
or a state of being; as, u I am, I sleep, I sit? 

To verbs belong number, person, mood, and tense. 

Number and Person. —Verbs have two numbers, the singu¬ 
lar and the plural; as, “ I love, we love? 

In each number there are three persons ; as, 


First person. 
Second person. 
Third person. 


SINGULAR. 

I love. 

Thou lovest. 
He loves. 


PLURAL. 

We love. 
Ye love. 
They love. 


Mood, or mode, is a particular form of the verb, showing the 
manner in which the being, action, or passion, is represented. 

There are five moods of verbs: the indicative, the imperative, 
the potential, the subjunctive, and the infinitive. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing; as, 
“ He loves; he is loved or it asks a question ; as, “ Does he love ?' 


i 




44 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhorting, 
entreating, or permitting ; as, 44 Depart thou ; mind ye ; let us 
stay ; go in peace.” 

The Potential Mood implies possibility, or liberty, power, will, 
or obligation ; as, 44 It may rain ; he may go or stay ; I can ride ; 
he would walk ; they should learn? 

The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a condition, 
motive, wish, supposition, &c.; and is preceded by a conjunction, 
expressed or understood, and attended by another verb ; as, 44 I 
will respect him, though he chide me“ Were he good, he would 
be happy ;” that is, if he were good. 

The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and unlimited 
manner, without any distinction of number or person ; as, to act , 
to speak , to he feared . 

The Participle is a certain form of the verb, and derives its 
name from its participating, not only the properties of a verb, but 
also those of an adjective ; as, 44 I am desirous of knowing him 
44 Admired and applauded , he became vain ;” 44 Haring finished 
liis work, he submitted it,” &c. 

There are three participles ; as, loving , loved, having loved . 

Tense being the distinction of time, seems to admit only of 
the present, past, and future; but some grammarians, to mark it 
more accurately, make it to consist of six variations; viz. the 
Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First 
and Second Future Tenses. 

The Present Tense represents an action or event, as passing at 
the time in which it is mentioned; as, 44 1 rule , I am ruled; I 
think , I fear ” The present tense likewise expresses a character, 
quality, &c. at present existing ; as, 44 He is an able man 44 She 
is an amiable woman” 

The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event, either as 
past or finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past; 
as, 44 1 loved her for her modesty and virtue 44 They were 
travelling post when he met them.” 

The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but also 
conveys an allusion to the present time; as, 44 1 have finished my 
letter;” 44 1 have seen the person that was recommended to me.” 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing, not only as past, but 
also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence ; 
as, 44 1 had finished my letter before he arrived.” 

The First Future Tense represents an action as yet to come, 
either with or without respect to the precise time; as, 44 The sun 
will rise to-morrow 44 1 shall see them again.” 

The Second Future intimates that the action will be fully 


GRAMMAR. 


45 


accomplished at or before the time of another future action or 
event; as, “ I shall have dined at one o’clock“ The two 
houses will have finished their business, when the king comes to 
prorogue them.” 

The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination and ar¬ 
rangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses. 
The conjugation of an active verb is styled the active voice ; 
and that of a passive verb, the passive voice. 

Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are those by the help of which the 
English verbs are principally conjugated. They are, do , be , 
have, shall , will, may , can, with their variations; and let and 
must , which have no variations. 

The conjugation of the verbs at large would only be perplexing 
and tedious to the young beginner, and has, no doubt, often 
proved a great barrier to the progress of grammatical knowledge. 
The verb to love only, therefore, is here introduced as a specimen, 
to give the learner a general idea of it, and to show the utility of 
this branch of grammar. Other verbs may be conjugated as in¬ 
clination and opportunity may serve. 

An active verb is conjugated in the following manner: 


TO LOVE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present Tense. 


PERSON. SINGULAR. 

1. I love. 

2. Thou lovest. 

3. He, she, or it 
or loves. 


PERSON. PLURAL. 

1. We love. 


2. Ye or you love. 
lovet1 ' { 3. They love. 


1. I loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 

3. He loved. 


Imperfect Tense. 

1. We loved. 

2. Ye or you loved. 

3. They loved. 


Perfect Tense. 

1. We have loved. 

2. Ye or you have loved. 
3; Thev have loved. 

J 


1. I have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 

3. He hath or has loved. 



YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


40> 


Pluperfect Tense. 


PERSON. SINGULAR. 

1. 1 had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 

3. He had loved. 


PERSON. PLURAL. 

1. We had loved. 

2. Ye or you had loved. 

3. They had loved. 


First Future Tense. 


1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. Ye or you shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 


Second Future Tense. 


1. I shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. . 

3. He will have loved. 


1. We shall have loved. 

2. Ye or you will have loved. 

3. They will have loved. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

1. Let me love. 1. Let us love. 

2. Love thou, or do thou 2. Love ye or you, or do ye 

love. love. 

3. Let him love. 3. Let them love. 


POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 


1. I may or can love. 

2. Thou mayst or canst 

love. 

3. He may or can love. 


1. We may or can love. 

2. Ye or you may or can 

love. 

3. They may or can love. 


Imperfect Tense. 


1. I might, could, would, or 

should love. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst love. 

3. He might, could, would, or 

should love. 


1. We might, could, would, or 

should love. 

2. Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should love. 

3. They might, could, would, 

or should love. 


Perfect Tense. 


1. I may or can have loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 

loved. 

3. He may or can have loved. 

J 


1. We may or can have loved. 

2. Ye or you may or can have 

loved. 

3. They may or can have loved. 



GRAMMAR 




Pluperfect Tense. 


VERSON. SINGULAR. 

1. I might, could, would, or 

should have loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst have 
loved. 

3. He might, could, would, or 

should have loved. 


PERSON. PLURAL. 

1. We might, could, would, or 

should have loved. 

2. \ e or you might, could. 

would, or should have 
loved. 

3. They might, could, would. 

or should have loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. kh If ye or you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. Perfect . Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having loved. 

Verbs passive are called regular when they form their perfect 
participle by the addition of d or eel to the verb ; as, from the 
verb to love is formed the passive, I am loved , I was loved , I 
shall be loved , &c. A passive verb is conjugated by adding the 
perfect participle to the auxiliary to be , through all its changes of 
number, person, mood, and tense. 

ADVERB. 

An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an adjective, 
and sometimes to another adverb, to express some quality or cir¬ 
cumstance respecting it; as, “He reads well “A truly good 
man “He writes very correctlyP 

Some adverbs are compared ; thus, soon, sooner , soonest; often, 
oftener , oftenest. Those ending in ly are compared by more , and 
most; as, wisely, more wisely , most wisely. 

The following are a few of the adverbs : 

Once lastly presently quickly not 

now before often perhaps how 

here lately much indeed 


more 





48 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


PREPOSITION. 

Prepositions seive to connect words with one another, and to 
show the relation between them. They are, for the most part, 
set before nouns and pronouns; as, “ He went from London to 
York“ She is above disguise;” “They are supported industry.” 
The following is a list of the principal prepositions:— 


Of 

into 

above 

at 

off 

to 

within 

below 

near 

on or upon 

for 

without 

between 

up 

among 

by 

over 

beneath 

down 

after 

with 

under 

from 

before 

about 

in 

through 

beyond 

behind 

against 


CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to 
connect sentences; so as out of two or more sentences to make 
but one. It sometimes connects only words. 

Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, the copu¬ 
lative and disjunctive. 

The conjunction copulative serves to connect or to continue a 
sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c. ; 
as, “He and his brother reside in London “ I will go, if he will 
accompany me “ You are happy, because you are good.” 

The conjunction disjunctive serves not only to connect and 
continue the sentence, but also to express opposition of meaning 
in different degrees ; as, “ Though he was frequently reproved, yet 
he did not reform “ They came with her, but went away without 
her.” 

The following is a list of the principal conjunctions : 

The copulative —And, that, both, for, therefore, if, then, since, 
because, wherefore. 

The disjunctive. —But, than, though, either, or, as, unless, 
neither, nor, lest, yet, notwithstanding. 

INTERJECTION. 

Interjections are words thrown in between the parts ot a 
sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the speaker; as, 
“ Oh ! I have alienated my friends “Alas! I fear for life!” “ O 
virtue ! how amiable thou art !” 

The following are some of the interjections: Oh ! pish! 
heigh ! lo ! behold ! ah ! tush ! fie ! hush ! hail [ 


GRAMM Alt. 


49 


DERIVATION. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways, namely . 
1. Substantives are derived from verbs; as, from to love comes 
lover. 2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and 
sometimes from adverbs; as, from salt comes to salt , from warm 
comes to warm , from forward comes to forward. 3. Adjectives 
are derived from substantives; as, from health comes healthy. 
4. Substantives are derived from adjectives ; as, from white comes 
whiteness. 5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives; as, from base 
comes basely. 


SYNTAX. 

Syntax treats of the agreement and construction of words in a 
sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a complete 
sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. A simple 
sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite verb ; as, “ Life 
is short. 11 A compound sentence consists of two or more simple 
sentences, joined together by one or more connective words; as, 
“ Life is short, and art is long/ 1 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making 
sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the subject, the 
attribute, and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute is the 
thing or action affirmed or denied of it; and the object is the 
thing affected by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before 
the verb or attribute; and the word or phrase denoting the object 
follows the verb; as, “ A wise man governs his passions. 11 Here, 
a wise man is the subject; governs , the attribute, or thing 
affirmed ; and his passions, the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, concord and govern¬ 
ment. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in 
gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech has over 
another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 

The following are the principal rules of Syntax, as laid down 
by Murray. 

H 


50 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


1. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number 
and person ; as, “ I learn ;” “ Thou art improved ;” u The birds 
sing.” 

2. Two or more nouns, &c. in the singular number, joined to- 
gether by a copulative conjunction, expressed or understood, 
have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the 
plural number; as, “ Socrates and Plato were wise, they were 
the most eminent philosophers of Greece ;” “ The sun that rolls 
over our heads, the food that we receive, the rest we enjoy, dailv 
admonish us of a superior and superintending Power.” 

3. The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to that of 
the conjunction copulative; for as the verb, noun, or pronoun is 
referred to the preceding terms taken separately,.it must be in the 
singular number; as, u Ignorance or negligence has caused this 
mistake;” “John, or James, or Joseph, intends to accompany 
me;” “ There is in many minds neither knowledge nor under¬ 
standing.” 

4. A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have a verb 
or pronoun agreeing with it, either of the singular or plural num¬ 
ber ; yet not without regard to the import of the word, as con¬ 
veying unity or plurality of idea; as, “ The meeting was large ;” 
“The nation is powerful; ” “My people do not consider, they 
have not known me;” “ The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, 
as their chief good ; ” “ The council were divided in their senti¬ 
ments.” 

5. Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the 
nouns for which they stand, in gender and number; as, “ This is 
the friend whom I love;” “That is the vice which I hate;” 
“ The king and the queen had put on their robes;” “ The moon 
appears, and she shines, but the light is not her OAvn.” 

The relative is of the same person as the antecedent, and the 
verb agrees with it accordingly; as, “ Thou who lovest Elizabeth;” 
“ I, who speak from experience.” 

6. The relative is the nominative case to the Verb, when no 
nominative comes between it and the verb ; as, “ The master who 
taught us;” “ The trees which are planted.” 

When a nominative comes betAveen the relative and the verb, 
the relative is governed by some Avord in its OAvn member of the 
oentence; as, “ He who preserves me, to whom I OAve my bein'*, 
whose I am, and ichom I serve, is eternal.” 

7. When the relative is preceded by tAvo nominatives of 
different persons, the relative and verb may agree in person with 
either, according to the sense; as, “ I am the man who command 
you;” or, “ I am the man who commands you.” 


GRAMMAR. 


51 


8. Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, belongs to 
a substantive, expressed or understood ; as, “ He is a good, as 
veil as a wise man ; 11 “ Few are happy;" 1 that is “persons;” 
“ This is a pleasant walk ;” that is, “ This walk is,” &c. 

Adjective pronouns must agree in number with their substan¬ 
tives ; as, “ This book, these books; that sort, those sorts 
another road, other roads. 1 ’ 

9. The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular num¬ 
ber only, individually or collectively; as, “A Christian, an infidel, 
a score, a thousand. 11 

The definite article the may agree with nouns in the singular or 
plural number; as, “ The garden, the houses, the stars. 11 

The articles are often properly omitted : when used they should 
be justly applied, according to their distinct nature; as, “ Gold is 
corrupting; 11 “ The sea is green; 11 “ A lion is bold.” 

10. One substantive governs another, signifying a different 
thing, in the possessive or genitive case; as, “ My father’s house; 11 
“ Man’s happiness; 11 “ Virtue’s reward. 11 

11. Active verbs govern the objective; as, “Truth ennobles 
her” “She comforts me” “They support us;” “Virtue re¬ 
wards her followers? 

12. One verb governs another that follows it, or depends upon 
it, in the infinitive mood; as, “ Cease to do evil; learn to do 
well; 11 “We should be prepared to render an account of our 
actions. 11 

The preposition to, though generally used before the latter verb, 
is^sometimes properly omitted ; as, “ I heard him say itinstead 
of, “ to say it.” 

13. In the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, 
relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be ob¬ 
served. Instead of saying, “ The Lord hath given, and the Lord 
hath taken away;” we should say, “ The Lord gave, and the Lord 
hath taken away. 11 Instead of, “ I remember the family more 
than twenty jears ;” it should be, “ I have remembered the family 
more than twenty years. 11 

14. Participles have the same government as the verbs from 
which they are derived; as, “ I am weary with hearing him;” 
1 She is instructing us;” “ The tutor is admonishing Charles .” 

15. Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, 
&c. require an appropriate situation in the sentence, namely, for 
the most part before adjectives, after verbs active or neuter, and 
frequently between the auxiliary and the verb; as, “ He made a 
very sensible discourse ; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly; and 
was attentively heard by the whole assembly.” 


52 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


16. Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or are 
equivalent to an affirmative ; as, “ Nor did they not perceive 
him that is, “ they did perceive him ; 11 “ His language, 
though inelegant, is not ungrammatical that is, “it is gram¬ 
matical. 11 

17. Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, “ I have heard 
a good character of her; 11 “ From him that is needy, turn not 
away; 11 “A word to the wise is sufficient for them “ We may 
be good and happy without riches™ 

18. Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, 
and cases of nouns and pronouns; as, “ Candour is to be ap¬ 
proved and practised “ If thou sincerely desire , and earnestly 
pursue virtue, she will assuredly be found by thee, and prove a 
rich reward “ The master taught her and me to write“ He 
and she were school-fellows. 11 

19. Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the sub¬ 
junctive mood after them. It is a general rule, that when some¬ 
thing contingent or doubtful is implied, the subjunctive ought to 
be used; as, “ If I were to write, he would not regard it“ He 
will not be pardoned unless he repent .” 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature require 
the indicative mood ; “ As virtue advances , so vice recedes f “ He 
is healthy because he is temperate. 

20. When the qualities of different things are compared, the 
latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction than 
or as, but agrees with the verb, or is governed by the verb or the 
preposition, expressed or understood ; as, “ Thou art wiser than 
Ithat is, “ than I am “ They loved him more than me 
that is, “ more than they loved me f “ The sentiment is well ex¬ 
pressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon than him; 11 that 
is, “ than by him.” 

21. To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our ideas 
in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently 
admitted. Instead of saying, “ He was a learned man, he was a 
wise man, and he was a good man f we use the ellipsis, and say, 
“He was a learned, wise, and good man. 11 

When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, 
weaken its force, or be attended with any impropriety, they must 
be expressed. In the sentence, “ We are apt to love who love 
us,” the word them should be supplied. “ A beautiful field and 
trees, 11 is not proper language ; it should be, “ Beautiful fields and 
trees ;” or, “ A beautiful field and fine trees. 1 ’ 

22. All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each 
other ; a regular and dependent construction throughout should 


GRAMMAR. 


53 


be carefully preserved. The following sentence is therefore inac¬ 
curate ; “ He was more beloved, but not so much admired as 
Cinthioit should be, 44 He was more beloved than Cinthio, but 
not so much admired.'” 

PROSODY. 

This term, though frequently applied almost exclusively to 
poetry, yet may, with equal propriety, be rendered applicable to 
prose. It forms an important division of grammar, and consists 
of two parts ; the former, which teaches the true pronunciation of 
words, and the latter, the laws of versification, for an account of 
which see Chapter XIY. 

In the former are included Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, Pause, 
and Tone. 

Accent is the laying a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain 
letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than 
the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word 4 presume,’ 
the stress of the voice must be on the letter w, and second syllable, 
4 sume,’ which takes the accent. Accent is either principal or 
secondary. The principal accent is that which necessarily distin¬ 
guishes one syllable in a word from the rest. The secondary accent 
is that stress which we may occasionally place upon another 
syllable, besides that which has the principal accent; in order to 
pronounce every part of the word more distinctly, forcibly, and 
harmoniously; thus, 4 complaisant, caravan, and violin,’ have 
frequently an accent on the first as well as on the last syllable, 
though a somewhat less forcible one. The same may be observed 
of 4 repartee, referee, privateer, domineer,’ &c. Rut it must be 
observed, that though an accent is allowed on the first syllable of 
these words, it is by no means necessary; they may all be pro¬ 
nounced with one accent, and that on the last syllable, without 
the least deviation from propriety. As emphasis evidently points 
out the most significant word in a sentence; so, where other 
reasons do not forbid, the accent always dwells with greatest force 
on that part of the word which, from its importance, the hearer 
has always the greatest occasion to observe : and this is necessarily 
the root or body of the word. But as harmony of termination 
frequently attracts the accent from the root to the branches of 
words, so the first and most natural law of accentuation seems to 
operate less in fixing the stress than any other. 

The Quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in 
pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. A vowel or 
syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel; which occasions 





54 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


it to be slowly joined, in pronunciation, to the following letter. 
as, ‘ fall, bale, mood, house, feature.’ A syllable is short when 
the accent is on the consonant; which occasions the vowel to be 
quickly joined to the succeeding letter; as ‘ an't, bon'net, hun'ger. 1 
A long syllable requires double the time of a short one in pro¬ 
nouncing it; thus, ‘mate 1 and ‘note 1 should be pronounced as slowly 
again as ‘mat 1 and ‘not.’ Unaccented syllables are generally short; 
as, ‘ admire, boldness, sinner.’ But to this rule there are many 
exceptions; as, ‘ Also, exile, gangrene, umpire, foretaste, 1 &c. 

By Emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by 
which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to 
lay particular stress, and to show how it affects the rest of the 
sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished 
by a particular ton.e of voice, as well as by a greater stress. On 
the right management of the emphasis depends the life of pro¬ 
nunciation. If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only 
will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning 
often left ambiguous. If the emphasis be placed wrong, v r e shall 
pervert and confound the meaning wholly. To give a common 
instance : such a simple question as this, “ Do you ride to town 
to-day ?” the answer may naturally be, “ No, we send a servant in 
our stead. 11 If thus: “Do you ride to town to-day ? 11 answer, 
“ No, we intend to walk. 11 “ Do you ride to town to-day ?” “ No, 
we ride into the country. 11 “ Do you ride to town to-day ? n “ No, 
but we shall to-morrow. 11 In like manner, in solemn discourse, 
the whole force and beauty of an expression often depend on 
the emphatic word; and we may present to the hearers quite 
different view's of the same sentiment, by placing the emphasis 
differently. 

Pauses, or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation 
of the voice, during a perceptible, and in many cases, a measur¬ 
able space of time. There are tv r o kinds of pauses ; first, em- 
phatical pauses ; and next, such as mark the distinction of the 
sense. An emphatical pause is made, after something has been 
said of peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix the hearers 
attention. Sometimes, before such a thing is said, we usher it in 
with a pause of this nature. Such pauses have the same effect as 
a strong emphasis, and are subject to the same rules; especially 
to the caution just now given, not repeating them too frequently. 
For as they excite uncommon attention, and of course raise ex¬ 
pectation, if the importance of the matter is not fully answerable 
to such expectation, they occasion disappointment and disgust. 
But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, is, to mark 
the divisions of the sense, and at the same time to allow the 


GRAMMAR.. 


55 


speaker to draw his breath; and the proper and delicate adjust¬ 
ment of such pauses, is one of the most nice and difficult articles 
ol delivery. In all reading, and public speaking, the management 
of the breath requires a good deal of care, so as not to oblige us 
to divide words from one another, which have so intimate a con¬ 
nexion that they ought to be pronounced with the same breath, 
and without the least separation. Many sentences are miserably 
mangled, and the force of the emphasis totally lost, by the divisions 
being made in the wrong place. To avoid this, every one, while 
he is speaking or reading, should be very careful to provide a full 
supply of breath for what he is to utter. It is a great mistake to 
imagine, that the breath must be drawn only at the end of a 
period, when the voice is allowed to fall. It may easily be gathered 
at the intervals of the period, when the voice is only suspended 
for a moment; and, by this management, one may always have a 
sufficient stock for carrying on the longest sentence, without im¬ 
proper interruptions. 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; consisting 
in the modulation of the voice, the notes and variations of ’sound 
which we employ, in the expression of our sentiments. Emphasis 
affects particular words and phrases with a degree of tone or 
inflection of the voice; but tones, peculiarly so called, affect 
sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes even the whole of a discourse. 
How much of the propriety', the force and grace of discourse, must 
depend on these, will appear from this single consideration ; that 
to almost every sentiment we utter, more especially to every 
strong emotion, nature has adapted some peculiar tone of voice. 
It is chiefly, therefore, in the proper use of these tones, that the 
life, spirit, beauty, and harmony of oral delivery consist. 

This correct and natural language of the emotions is not sc 
difficult to be attained as most readers seem to imagine. If we 
enter into the spirit of the author’s sentiments, as well as into the 
meaning of his words, we shall not fail to deliver the words in 
properly varied tones. But when we recommend to readers an 
attention to the tone and language of emotions, we must be 
understood to do it with proper limitation. Moderation is neces¬ 
sary in this point, as it is in other things. For when reading 
becomes strictly imitative, it assumes a theatrical manner, and 
must be highly improper, as well as give offence to the hearers ; 
because it is inconsistent with that delicacy and modesty, which 
on all occasions are indispensable. 


56 


YOUNG JVIAN S COMPANION. 


PUNCTUATION. 

As Punctuation is intended to aid both the sense and the 
pronunciation of a sentence, it could not have been exclusively 
discussed under the part of Syntax, or Prosody; it is therefore 
placed under a distinct and subsequent article. Punctuation is 
the art of dividing a written composition into sentences, or parts 
of sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose of making the 
different pauses which the sense, and an accurate pronunciation 
require. The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semi¬ 
colon, a pause double that of the comma; the Colon, double that 
of the semicolon ; and the Period, double that of the colon. 

The points are marked in the following manner: 

The Comma , The Colon : 

The Semicolon ; The Period . 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, 
though very closely connected in sense, require a pause between 
them; as, “ I remember, with grati-Vuae. his love and services. 1 ’ 
“ Charles is beloved, esteemed, and respecteu.” 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence 
into two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which 
are separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependent on each 
other as those which are distinguished by a colon ; as, “ Straws 
swim on the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom.” 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more 
parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semi¬ 
colon ; but not so independent as separate distinct sentences; as, 
“ Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness: 
there is no such thing in the world.” 

The Period. —When a sentence is complete and independent, 
and not connected in construction with the following sentence, it 
is marked with a period; as, “Fear God. Honour the King. 
Have charity towards all men.” 

Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, there 
are others that denote a different modulation of voice, in corre¬ 
spondence to the sense. These are, 

The Interrogative point ? 

The Exclamation point! 

Parenthesis ( ) 

as, “ Are you sincere ?” “ How excellent is a grateful heart!” 

“ Know then this truth (enough for man to know) 

Virtue alone is happiness below.” 




GRAMMAR. 


57 


The following characters are also frequently used in com¬ 
position. 

An Apostrophe, marked thus 1 ; as tho’, judg’d. 

am 

A Caret, marked thus a ; as, I a diligent. 

A Hyphen, which is thus marked -; as lap-dog, to-morrow. 

The Acute Accent, marked thus'; as fan'cy. 

The Grave Accent, thus'; as, favour. 

The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable is this", as 
rosy: and a short one, this v ; as folly. This last mark is called 
a Breve. 

A Diaeresis, thus marked**, shows that two vowels form sepa¬ 
rate syllables; as, Creator. 

A Section is thus marked §. 

A Paragraph, thus 5[* 

A Quotation has two inverted commas at the beginning, 
and two direct ones at the end of a phrase or passage; as, 

“ The proper study of mankind is man.” 

Crotchets or Brackets serve to enclose a particular word or 
sentence. They are marked thus [ ]. 

An Index or hand points out a remarkable passage. 

A Brace ^ unites three poetical lines ; or connects a num¬ 
ber of words, in prose, with one common term. 

An Asterisk, or little *, directs the reader to some note in the 
margin. 

An Ellipsis is thus marked-; as, K—g, for King. 

An Obelisk, which is marked thus -f-, and Parallels thus ||, 
together with the letters of the alphabet, and figures, are used as 
references to the margin. 

The following words should begin with capitals:— 

1st. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, para¬ 
graph, &c. 

2d. The first word after a period, and frequently after the notes 
of interrogation and exclamation. 

3d. The names of the Deity; as, God, Jehovah, the Supreme 
Being, &c. 

4th. Proper names of persons, places, ships, &c. 

5th. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as, 
Grecian, Roman, English, &c. This rule, though founded upon 
correct principles, is, however, frequently violated in modern 
printing and writing. 

6th. The first word of a quotation in a direct form; as, 
“ Always remember this ancient maxim, ‘ Know thyself.’ ” 

i 



68 


YOUNG MAN ft COMPANION. 


7tli. The first word of every line in poetry. 

8th. The pronoun I, and the interjection O! 

9th. Words of particular importance; as, the Reformation, 
the Restoration, the Revolution. This is not, however, much 
attended to, and may in general be left to the taste and dis¬ 
cretion of the writer. 


PARSING. 

When the pupil has passed through the whole of the pre¬ 
ceding rules, and gained a thorough knowledge of the parts of 
speech, in all their moods, cases, &c., he should then proceed to 
some examples, in order to familiarize the subject to his mind, 
and be able to answer correctly, on being asked the grammatical 
construction of any word or sentence. This is done by what is 
called parsing, of which the following is a specimen. 

EXERCISE IN PARSING. 

The Lord's Prayer. — Our Father who art in heaven ! 
hallowed be thy name ; thy kingdom come; thy will be done on 
earth, as it is in heaven ; give us this day our daily bread; and 
forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them who trespass against 
us: and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil ; 
for thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever. 
Amen. 

Our, a pronoun, first person plural, from the singular my; 
Father , a substantive noun, masculine gender and singular num¬ 
ber ; who, relative pronoun, also singular and masculine, to agree 
with Father. 

In our translation of the New Testament we have which in this 
passage of the Lord's Prayer instead of who; but which is the 
neuter gender of the pronoun, and consequently ought not to be 
applied to any person, human or divine. 

Art, the second person singular of the present tense, indicative 
mood, of the auxiliary verb to be; in, a preposition; heaven, a 
substantive noun, in the objective case, governed by the pre¬ 
position in. 

Hallowed, participle past of the passive voice, of the active 
veib to hallow; be, the third person singular of the present tense 
of the subjunctive and imperative moods of the verb to be; 
Hallowed be thy name is equivalent to Let thy name be hallowed, 
or, May thy name be hallowed, reverenced, and held sacred; name , 
a substantive noun, singular number, objective case. 


GRAMMAR. 


Thy, a pronoun of the second person singular, to agree with 
the following substantive kingdom ; come, the third person singu¬ 
lar of the present sense of the imperative and subjunctive moods, 
of the active verb to come; Thy kingdom come is equivalent to 
May or let thy kingdom come. 

Thy, a pronoun possessive, as before; will, a substantive noun, 
neuter gender, and singular number, nominative case ; be, adverb, 
as before; done , the participle of the active verb to do; in, a 
preposition ; earth, a substantive noun, neuter gender, singular 
number, and objective case; as, a conjunction; it, a pronoun, 
neuter and singular, agreeing with will; is, third person singular 
of the present tense, indicative mood, of the verb to be, agreeing 
with the nominative it; in, a preposition ; heaven, a substantive, 
singular, neuter gender, objective case, governed by in. 

Give, second person singular, imperative mood, of the active 
verb to give; the nominative thou agreeing with it being sup¬ 
pressed, as, give thou, or do thou give; us, the personal pronoun I 
in the objective case plural, governed by the active verb give ; this, 
an adjective pronoun ; day, a substantive noun, singular number, 
neuter gender; our, a possessive pronoun ; daily, a derivative 
adjective, formed from the substantive day, agreeing, in all cir¬ 
cumstances, with the following substantive bread, of the neuter 
gender, singular number, and objective case, governed by the pre¬ 
ceding verb give. 

And, a conjunction ; forgive, forgive thou, or do thou forgive, 
second person singular, imperative mood, of the active verb to 
forgive, placed in similar circumstances with the foregoing verb 
give, being connected with it by the copulative conjunction and; 
us, pronoun, in the objective case, governed by forgive; our, pro¬ 
noun ; trespasses, substantive noun, plural number, neuter gender, 
objective case, agreeing with our, and governed by forgive.; as, a 
conjunction ; we, pronoun, nominative plural of I; forgive, first 
person plural, present tense, indicative mood, agreeing with we; 
them, pronoun, plural number, objective case; who, relative 
pronoun, agreeing with the antecedent them, in being masculine or 
feminine, and plural, but not in case ; for who is here the nomi¬ 
native to the following verb trespass; trespass, third person 
plural, present tense, indicative mood, active voice of the verb 
to trespass, agreeing with the pronoun before it, who ; against, 
a preposition ; us, objective case plural of the personal pronoun /. 

And, conjunction ; lead, for lead thou, or do thou lead, second 
person singular, imperative mood of the active verb to lead; us, 
pronoun, governed in the objective case by lead; not, an adverb ; 
into, preposition; temptation, objective case ot the substantive 




60 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


noun, governed by preposition into; but, a disjunctive conjunction; 
deliver , second person singular, imperative, of the verb to deliver; 
us , pronoun ; from, preposition; evil, an adjective noun, here 
used substantively, and equivalent to the evil thing, the evil one } 
evil things in general. 

For, here used in the place of because, a conjunction ; thine, 
a pronoun ; is, third person singular, present of the indicative of 
the substantive verb to be; the, definite article ; kingdom, sub¬ 
stantive noun ; power, glory, substantive nouns ; and, a con¬ 
junction ; Amen , a Hebrew word, indeclinable, signifying properly, 
truth, verity, and thence employed in an abridged form to express, 
May what has gone before really and truly be brought about! In 
the beginning of a sentence in the New Testament, Amen signifies 
of a truth, truly, verily, indeed. 

In the foregoing exercise the imperative mood is used in the 
words give, forgive &c., because, in the Greek original of the 
New Testament, as well as in the Latin and other translations, 
words are employed to express the humble petitions of the Lord’s 
Prayer, which, on other occasions, serve to convey a peremptory 
command. Thus, “ Give me the bread,” may signify a master’s 
orders to his servants ; while in the cases now under consideration, 
“ Give us our bread,” can signify no more than, “ We humbly pray 
thee to give us our necessary food, and other comforts.” The term 
imperative, therefore, is to be taken in its technical and gram¬ 
matical and not in its proper literal meaning. 


ARITHMETIC. 


61 


CHAPTER IV. 

ARITHMETIC. 


Arithmetic is often called the science of numbers, and 
explains their various properties, and the art of computing by 
them. It holds a distinguished rank among the mathematical 
sciences, and even surpasses them all in usefulness : its universal 
application to the common concerns of life, renders it a part of 
knowledge not merely desirable, but necessary to every one who 
wishes to be serviceable to society, to manage his own private 
affairs well, and to guard against fraud and imposition. 

Section I.— Origin and History. 

Nothing satisfactory can be offered respecting the origin and 
invention of Arithmetic: like almost every other useful art, its 
beginning must have been extremely rude and simple, the fruit of 
pure necessity; and it must have originated in the first ages of 
the w r orld, when men began to form societies; for it is not easy to 
conceive how social intercourse could have been maintained, 
differences and disputes adjusted, bargains made, and trafficking 
carried on, without the necessary aid of computation. Shortly 
after the dispersion of mankind, the sciences were carried by the 
descendants of Shern into Chaldea, and the East; in these 
countries arithmetic was cultivated probably at an earlier period 
than in any other. The Phoenicians, who were descended from 
Canaan, the son of Ham, and settled on the eastern coast of the 
Mediterranean Sea, were the people who first of any addicted 
themselves to commerce, to which they made navigation subser¬ 
vient ; and as they must have practised arithmetic to a great 
extent in their numerous mercantile transactions, succeeding 
nations have ascribed to them the invention. 

Josephus informs us, that Abraham, having acquired a know¬ 
ledge of arithmetic in the East, was the first who instructed the 
Egyptians in the art. By the Egyptian priests, arithmetic was 
cultivated with ardour, and constituted no inconsiderable part of 
their theology and philosophy. The Grecian philosophers, who 


62 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


travelled into the East in quest of knowledge, transmitted this 
science from Egypt into Greece, whence it must (in common 
with other sciences) have received considerable improvements; 
among which the invention of the Multiplication Table is ascribed 
to Pythagoras, and a method of determining the Prime Number, 
to Eratosthenes. The Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, repre¬ 
sented numbers by the letters of the alphabet peculiar to each 
nation. 

The Greeks very early made use of this method. The twenty- 
four letters, taken according to their order, at first denoted the 
numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 
100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, and 800; to which they 
added the three following -r, b-> to represent 6, 90, and 900. 

The Romans followed the like method, and besides characters 
for each rank of classes, introduced others for five, fifty, and five 
hundred. Their method is still used for distinguishing the 
chapters of books, and some other purposes. Their numeral 
letters and values are the following : I, one; V, five; X, ten ; 
L, fifty; C, one hundred; D, five hundred; M, one thousand. 
Any number may be represented by repeating and combining 
these according to the following rules. (1.) When the same 
letter is repeated twice, or oftener, its value is represented as 
often. Thus II, signifies two; XXX, thirty; CC, two hundred. 
(2.) When a numeral letter is placed after one of greater value, 
their values are added: thus XI, signifies eleven ; LXY, sixty- 
five ; MDCXXVIII, one thousand six hundred and twenty- 
eight. (3.) When a natural letter is placed before one of greater 
value, the value of the less is taken from that of the greater; 
thus IV, signifies four; XL, forty ; XC, ninety, CD, four 
hundred. 

Sometimes Iq is used instead of D for 500 ; and the value is 
increased ten times by annexing Q to the right hand. Thus, Iq 
signifies 500 ; Iqq, 5000 ; IOOO, 50,000. Also Cjq is used for 
1000 ; CCioo for 10,000 ; CCCiooq for 100,000. Some¬ 
times thousands are represented by drawing a line over the top 
of the numeral; V being used for five thousand; L for fifty 
thousand ; CC two hundred thousand. 

We have not the means of tracing the progressive improvement 
of Arithmetic among the ancients; judging from their works 
(which, however, are not always to be depended on), there is 
reason to suppose that the science advanced. Besides Addition, 
Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division, the ancients possessed 
methods of extracting the Square and Cube Roots ; they were 
acquainted with the theory of Proportions ; Arithmetical and 


ARITHMETIC. 


63 


Geometrical Progression; and, in general, with the combinations 
ot numbers, the reduction of ratios to their simplest form, &c. 

About the year of Christ 200, a new kind of arithemctic, called 
sexagesimal, was invented, probably by Ptolemy, to remedy the 
difficulties of the common Greek and Roman method, especially 
with regard to fractions. Every unit was supposed to be divided 
into 60 parts, and each of these into 60 others, and so on. Thus 
from 1 to 59 were marked in the common way: then 60 was 
called a sexagesima prima, or first sexagesimal integer, and one 
single dash over it; so 60 was expressed thus, T; and so on to 
59 times 60, or 3540, which was thus expressed, LIX'. He now 
proceeded to 60 times 60, which he called a sexagesima sccunda, 
and was thus expressed, 1"; and so on till he came to 60 times 
3600, which was a third sexagesimal, and expressed thus, V". If 
any number less than 60 was joined with these sexagesimals, it 
was added in its proper characters without any dash; thus, TXV 
represented 60 and 15, or 75 ; IV'XXV is four times 60 and 
25, or 265 ; X*II'XV is ten times 3600, twice 60 and 15, or 
36,135, &c. Sexagesimal fractions were marked by putting the 
dash at the foot, or on the left hand of the letter: thus, I y or T, 
denoted 6 - 0 ; I y/ , or "I, &c. So nearly did the invention of 

this method approach the Arabic, or common mode of notation : 
instead of sexagesimal progression, it was required only to sub¬ 
stitute decimal, to make the signs of numbers from 1 to 9 simple 
characters, and to introduce the 0, a character which signifies 
nothing of itself, but which serves to fill up places. Though the 
sexagesimal whole numbers were soon laid aside after the intro¬ 
duction of the Arabic notation, sexagesimal fractions continued 
till the invention of decimals, and are even still used in the sub¬ 
divisions of circular arcs and angles. 

The method of notation which we now use, consisting of the 
common figures 1, 2, 3, &c. came into Europe from the Arabians, 
by the way of Spain. They appear to have been the first people 
who acquired the art from the Indians, and it was known among 
them for a considerable time before the Europeans became ac¬ 
quainted with it, which at length however they did, by means of 
Gerbert, a monk of Fleury, and afterwards pope, under the 
name of Sylvester II. This adventurous scholar, with the sole 
laudable view of acquiring those useful parts of learning of 
which the Europeans were then destitute, settled among the 
Arabs at Corduba. Having accomplished his purpose, he re¬ 
turned to his country about a.D. 960, and, among his other 
valuable acquisitions, enriched it with the knowledge of the 
Arabian, or rather Indian mode of notation, on which the great 


64 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


convenience of arithmetic and its subsequent improvements are 
founded. This discovery, notwithstanding the advantages it 
promised, seems not to have been very eagerly adopted ; about 
150 years having elapsed after its introduction by Gerbert before 
it was known in Britain, and nearly 100 more before it was 
brought into common use. The advantage of this method 
consists principally in its brevity and precision ; instead of em¬ 
ploying twenty-four characters, only nine digits and a cipher were 
wanted. The symbols also are more simple, more appropriate, 
and determined; and therefore the powers of them are less liable 
to inaccuracy or confusion. With the symbols too, the scale of 
numerical calculations has been varied. The first improvement 
was the introduction of reckoning by tens, which, no doubt, took 
its rise from the obvious mode of counting by the fingers, as that 
was customary in the primary calculation of every nation except 
the Chinese. 

This single process removes the difficulties and embarrassments 
of the preceding modes. Thus the signs of numbers, from 1 to 9, 
(as before observed) are considered as simple characters, denoting 
the simple numbers subjoined to the character; the cipher, 0, by 
filling the blanks, denotes the want of a number or unit in that 
place, and the addition of the columns in a ten-fold ratio, always 
expressing ten times the former, leads from tens, according to the 
order in which they stand, in a method at once most luminous 
and certain. 

The oldest treatises extant upon the theory of arithmetic, are 
the seventh, eighth, and ninth books of Euclid’s Elements, 
which treat of proportion and of prime and composite numbers. 
Nicomachus the Pythagorean wrote a Treatise on the Theory of 
Arithmetic, consisting chiefly of the distinctions and divisions of 
numbers into classes, as plain, solid, triangular, quadrangular, and 
the rest of the figurate numbers, as they are called, numbers odd 
and even, &c., with some of the more general properties of the 
several kinds. His Arithmetic was published at Paris in 1538. 
The next remarkable writer on this subject is Boethius, who is 
supposed to have copied most of his work from Nicomachus. 

From this time, no remarkable writer on arithmetic appeared 
till about the year 1^00, when Jordanus, of Namur, wrote a 
treatise on this subject, which was published and demonstrated by 
Joannes Faber Stapulensis, in the fifteenth century: and as 
learning advanced in Europe, the number of writers on arithmetic 
increased. About the year 1644, Regiomontanus, in his triangular 


9 


ARITHMETIC. 65 

however, still remains in the division of time. Ramus, in his 
arithmetic, written about the year 1550, and published by 
Lazarus Schonerus in 1586, uses decimal periods in carrying on 
the square and cube roots to fractions. The same had been done 
before by our countrymen, Buckley and Record; but the first 
who published an express treatise on decimals was Simon 
Stevinius, about the year 1582. Dr. Wallis is the first who took 
much notice of circulating decimals ; and the honour of inventing 
logarithms is unquestionably due to Lord Napier, baron of Mer- 
chiston, in Scotland, about the end of the sixteenth, or beginning 
of the seventeenth century. Arithmetic has thus advanced to a 
degree of perfection which the ancients could never have imagined 
possible, much less hoped to attain ; and it may now be reckoned 
one of those few sciences which is, in its nature, capable of little 
further improvement. 


Section II.— Principal Rules of Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic has five elementary rules; namely, Numeration 
or Notation, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division ; 
and these are the foundations of all the other arithmetical opera¬ 
tions. These rules are usually divided into simple and com¬ 
pound ; they are simple when they relate only to figures, and 
compound when these figures have reference to money, weights, 
measures, &c. It has been customary in many systems of arith¬ 
metic to introduce the compound immediately after the simple 
branch of each rule, but we have preferred the method of going 
through the simple rules first, which has been found in general an 
easier progression for the pupil. 


SIMPLE RULES. 

NOTATION, OR NUMERATION. 

« 

By Notation is meant the art of expressing numbers by a 
limited set of characters, called figures. The figures now used, 
and their powers, are the following : viz.— 

12 3 4567 8 9 

one two three four five six seven eight nine. 

* 

Another character, formed by the letter 0, is called a cipher, 

K 


66 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


signifying, when alone, nothing, but when joined to another figure 
it adds tenfold to its original value: thus— 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 

ten twenty thirty forty fifty sixty seventy eighty ninety. 

Other ciphers added still increase it tenfold: thus— 

100 1000 200,000 1 , 000,000 

one hundred one thousand two hundred thousand one million. 

The value of any number may be known by learning the fol¬ 
lowing table, which must be read from right to left, beginning 
with No. 1, and calling it units :— 


W 

(3 

O 



1 0987654321 


The figures together in one sum, thus, 10,987,654,321, would 
read or be called as follows : ten thousand nine hundred and 
eighty-seven millions six hundred and fifty-four thousand three 
hundred and twenty-one. 

The method of classing numbers as above explained, may be 
extended to any length: but the most convenient method of 
assisting the mind to form an idea of large numbers is to divide 
them into periods of six figures each, beginning at the right, 
calling the first period units, the second millions, the third 
billions, &c., according to the following table, where it must be 
remarked, that each period contains units, tens, hundreds, thou¬ 
sands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of thousands, of the 
denomination marked over that period \ 


ARITHMETIC. 


67 


Quadrillions. Trillions. Billions. Millions. Units. 



6 1 7 , 8 3 4 . 1 3 0 , 9 2 7 . 6 3 1 , 8 2 9 . 4 0 3 , 1 7 2 . 8 9 5 , 2 6 3 . 


The right hand place of each denomination is units of that 
denomination : but we do not pronounce the word units in reading 
except at the right hand place of all; instead of it we say, 
millions, billions, &c., naming the right hand figure of each period 
• simply by the denomination marked over that period. 

Case I.—To write any number. 

Utile: —Place dots in a line from right to left to represent the 
places of units, tens, hundreds, &c., up to the highest denomina¬ 
tion contained in the number to be expressed. Place each figure 
of the said number under the dot which represents its denomina¬ 
tion ; and when this is done, if there be any vacant places, fill 
them up with ciphers. 

Example. —To write the number—One hundred and two thou¬ 
sand three hundred and four. Thus: make six dots to denote 
the places of units, tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands, 

and hundreds of thousands; namely.; under the left 

hand dot place 1, under the fourth dot (from the right) place 2, 

under the third dot 3, and under the first dot 4; thus—1 23 4, 
and placing ciphers in the vacant spaces, the number will be 
102304, as required. 

Case IT.—To read any number. 

Rule. —Beginning at the right hand, name the place of each 
figure successively; namely, units, tens, hundreds, &c. ; then, 
beginning at the left hand place, subjoin to the name of each 
figure that of its place. 

Example. —Thus, to read the number 4321; point to the 1, 
and call it units ; to the 2, and call it tens; to the 3, and call it 
hundreds ; and to the 4, and call it thousands. Then (beginning 
at the left) subjoin to the 4 the name before given it, calling it 
four thousand ; to the 3 in like manner subjoin the name of 








68 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


hundreds, calling it three hundred; to the 2 subjoin the name 
tens, calling it two tens, or twenty; and to the 1 subjoin, or 
rather understand, the name units, calling it 1 unit, or simply 
one. The above number is therefore to be read, four thousand 
three hundred and twenty-one. 

APPLICATION. 

The building of Rome took place seven hundred and fifty-three 
years before Christ. The computation of years from the birth of 
Christ did not begin to be used in history till the year seven 
hundred and forty-eight. The current year of the Christian era 
is one thousand eight hundred and thirty-nine. Write down in 
figures the above several numbers of years. 

Answer.— 753, 748, 1839. 

It has been remarked, that the planets perform their revolutions 
with so much exactness, as never once to fail ; but, for almost 
6000 years, come constantly about to the same period, without 
the difference of the hundredth part of a minute. 

Mercury is said to be about 37,000,000 of miles from the Sun; 
Venus, 68,000,000 ; the Earth,95,000,000 ; Mars, 145,000,000 ; 
Jupiter, 495,000,000 ; and the Georgium Sidus, 1,800,000,000. 
Write down in words the above several figures. 

Answer. —Mercury, thirty-seven millions; Venus, sixty-eight 
millions ; the Earth, ninety-five millions ; Mars, one hundred and 
forty-five millions ; Jupiter, four hundred and ninety-five millions; 
and the Georgium Sidus, eighteen hundred millions. 

ADDITION. 

» 

Simple Addition teaches to collect two or more given num¬ 
bers of one denomination into one, and to express the amount 
correctly. 

Rule. —Place the numbers under each other, so that units may 
stand under units, tens under tens, hundreds under hundreds, &c. 
Add up the figures in the column of units, find how many tens 
are contained in the sum, and what there is over. Set down what 
there is over below the units, and carry one from every ten to the 
next column; that is, add as many ones to it as there were tens 
found in the last sum: add up this column as before, and in like 
manner proceed, till all the columns are added; observing to put 
under the last column the whole sum it amounts to. 


ARITHMETIC 


69 


EXAMPLES. 

No. 1. 


5 

2 

7 

3 

17 


EXPLANATION. 

3 and 7 are 10 
10 and 2 are 12 
12 and 5 are 17 

Put down 17. 


No. 2. 


1357 

209 

2163 

7075 


10804 


EXPLANATION. 


First Column. 

5 and 3 are 8 
8 and 9 are 17 
17 and 7 are 24 

Set down under the first column 
the right hand figure, 4 ; carry 
on to begin the second column 
the left hand figure, 2. 

Second Column. 

2 and 7 are 9 
9 and 6 are 15 
15 and 5 (miss 0) are 20 

Set down under the second 
column the right hand figure, 
0; carry on to begin the third 
column the left hand figure, 2. 


Third Column. 

2 and 1 (miss 0) are 3 

3 and 2 are 5 
5 and 3 are 8 

Put down 8. Nothing to 
carry on. 


Fourth Column. 

7 and 2 are 9 
9 and 1 are 10 

Put down 10 







70 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION 


No. 3. 

No. 4. 

No. 5. 

No. 6 

5465 

4167 

8197 

7292 

9765 

3297 

2336 

8678 

4594 

6459 

6839 

1627 

6754 

9645 

8836 

8901 

1263 

8167 

6785 

321 

4613 

3267 

6976 

6718 

32454 

35002 

39969 

33537 


Operations under this rule are proved by cutting off the top 
line, and, after adding up the whole as before directed, adding up 
all the lines below the line cut off, and placing the sum below 
that of the whole; then if this last sum be added to the line cut 
off, and the result be equal to the sum of the whole first found, 
the work is right. Thus— 

139 

7385 

64 

9 

827 

8424 sum of the whole. 

8285 sum, exclusive of the top line. 

8424 proof; it being like the sum of the whole. 


Various other methods of proving operations in Addition have 
been given, but the most simple appears to be that of casting up 
every column the reverse way; that is, beginning each at the top 
instead of the bottom. This introduces the learner to a fresh 
connexion or association of the same figures, and if the result 
agrees in both ways it may be considered as right. This method 
of proof is adopted by most of the large mercantile and banking 
houses in the metropolis, and has scarcely ever been found to fail 
in discovering and detecting errors, if the operation is conducted 
with care and fidelity. 


SUBTRACTION. 

Simple Subtraction teaches the art of taking one number 
of the same denomination from another, in order to find the 
remainder. 














ARITHMETIC. 


71 


Rule .—Place the lesser number under the greater ; draw a line 
under them, and, beginning at the right hand, take each figure in 
the lower line from the figure under which it stands; but if the 
figure in the lower line is greater than that in the upper, then, in 
numbers of one denomination, ten must be borrowed and added 
to the figure in the upper line ; then take the figure in the lower 
line from the sum, and write down the remainder; but for every 
ten thus borrowed, one must be paid or added to the next left 
hand figure in the lower line. 


No. 1. 

7634 

4927 

2707 


EXPLANATION 

Take 7 from 4 you cannot, therefore borrow 10, which, 
added to the 4, make 14: then 7 from 14 leaves 7; set down 
7, and carry 1 for the 10 borrowed, which, added to the 2, 
make 3 : then 3 from 3 leaves 0; set down 0: 9 from 6 
you cannot; borrow 10, which, added to the 6, make 16; 
then 9 from 16 leaves 7 ; set down 7, and carry 1, for the 
10 borrowed, to the 4, which make 5; then 5 from 7 leaves 
2; set down 2. In order to prove it, add the two lowest 
lines together, and if the product agrees with the top line, 


the work is right. 




No. 2. 

No. 3. 

No. 4. 

No. 5. 

953467 

501746 * 

624537 

814537 

765578 

345670 

257048 

225653 

187889 

156076 

367489 

588884 


MULTIPLICATION. 

Multiplication is a compendious mode of Addition, and 
teaches to find the amount of any given number by repeating it 
any proposed number of times. In this rule particular attention 
should be paid to the following table, which must be learned com¬ 
pletely by heart before any thing can be done by the pupil to 
advantage:— 

















72 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

4 

8 

12 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

6 

12 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

» 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

7 

14 

21 

28 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

77 

84 

8 

16 

24 

32 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

9 

18 

27 

36 

45 

54 

63 

72 

81 

90 

99 

108 

: 10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

11 

22 

33 

44 

55 

66 

77 

88 

99 

110 

121 

132 

12 

24 

36 

48 

60 

72 

84 

96 

108 

120 

132 

L 

144 


EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE. 

To find the product of two numbers, look for one of them in 
the top line, and for the other in the left hand column; then, the 
the number which stands directly below the first, and level with 
the second, is the product required : thus, to find 3 times 5— 
look for three at the top, and 5 on the left hand; then, below 
the 3, and level with the 5, stands 15 ; which is the product of 3 
and 5. In like manner, to find 10 times 9 ; under 10, and level 
with 9, stands 90, the product. To find 6 times 8; under 6, 
and level with 8, stands 48, the product. 

In Multiplication, three terms are to be observed—1. The 
multiplicand, or the number to be multiplied. 2. The multi¬ 
plier, or the number to multiply with. 3. The product, which 
is the result of the work, or the answer to the question. 























































































































































arithmetic. 


78 


Case I.—To multiply by any number not exceeding 12. 

Rule .—Beginning at the figure in the unit’s place of the mul¬ 
tiplicand, multiply that, and each of the succeeding figures in 
order, by the multiplier, observing at each step to set down the 
result, as in addition, and carry the tens to the product in the 
next step. 

EXAMPLES. 

No. 1. 

7654 

_4 

30616 


EXPLANATION. 

4 times 4 are 16 ; set down the right hand figure 6, and 
carry the left hand figure 1 : 4 times 5 are 20; 20 and 1 
are 21 ; set down the 1, and carry the 2 : 4 times 6 are 24 ; 
24 and and 2 are 26 ; set down the 6, and carry the 2 : 4 times 
7 are 28 ; 28 and 2 are 30 ; set down 30. 


No. 2. No. 3. 

Multiplicand . 367 543813 

Multiplier ... 5 9 

Product .... 1835 4894317 


No. 4. 

7543852 

__ 6 

45263112 


Case II.—When the multiplier exceeds 12, and is a com¬ 
posite number; that is, when any two numbers multiplied together 
will produce it. 

Rule. —First, find the two numbers which, multiplied together, 
will produce the number required ; then multiply the multipli¬ 
cand by one of the component parts, and that product by the 
other. 

% 

EXAMPLE. 

Multiply 2761 by 14 
_7 

19327 
._ 2 

38654 


EXPLANATION. 

Here 14 is a composite number, because 7 times 2 are 14: 
therefore multiply the multiplicand 2761 by 7, (as in the last 
case,) and that product 19327 by the other component part 
(2) : and the last product 38654 is the answer, and is equal 
to 14 times 2761. 


L 


















74 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Case III.—When the multiplier is above 12, ami is not a 
composite number; that is, when no two numbers multiplied 
together will produce it. 

Rule .—Multiply the multiplicand by eacli figure in the multi¬ 
plier respectively, beginning with the units figure, observing to 
place the first figure of each product under the figure multiplied 
by; then add the two products together. 

EXAMPLE. 

Multiply 2706 by 13 

13 

8118 

2706 

35178 

EXPLANATION. 

Here 13 is not a composite number, because no two num¬ 
bers multipled together will produce it: therefore, place the 
multiplier, 13, under the multiplicand, 2706, and multiply it 
by the 3, placing the first figure of the product (8) under the 
figure 3 multiplied by: then multiply the multiplicand 1, 
placing the first figure of the product (6) under the 1. 
Lastly, add the products together, and the sum 35178, will 
be the product of 2706 multiplied by 13. 

Case IV.—It frequently happens that the multiplier has one 
or more ciphers on the right hand of it. 

Rule .—Proceed with the multiplication as if there were no 
ciphers, and then place the number of ciphers, whatever the 
number may be, on the right hand of the product. 

EXAMPLES. 

No. 1. 

Multiply 3764 by 30. 

3764 

30 

112920 


EXPLANATION. 


In this example the multiplicand is multiplied by 3, as in 
Case I.; and then the cipher is placed on the right hand of 
the product. 








ARITHMETIC. 


75 


No. 2. 

Multiply 3764 by 3200. 

3764 
_8 

30112 
_4_ 

12044800 


EXPLANATION. 

In this example, 8 times 4 being 32, the multiplicand is 
multiplied by the 8, and that product by 4, as in Case II.; and 
the ciphers are placed on the right hand. 

No. 3. 

Multiply 3764 by 1900C. 

3764 

19 

33876 

3764 

71516000 


EXPLANATION. 

In this example the multiplication is performed, and care 
taken to place the first figures of the product under the figure 
multiplied by, as explained in Case III. The ciphers are 
placed as before on the right hand. 

Multiplication is proved by repeating the operation, using the 
multiplier for the multiplicand, and the multiplicand for the 
multiplier. Or it may be done by casting out the nines ; that is, 
cast out the nines of the multiplier and multiplicand, and set 
down the remainders. Multiply the remainders together, and if 
the excess of nines in their product be equal to the excess of 
nines in the total product, the work may be deemed right. The 
best method of proving Multiplication is by division; and if that 
be adopted, the two rules must be learned at the same time. 
Then the proof of each example in Multiplication becomes a sum 
in Division, and vice versa. 

DIVISION. 

Simple Division teaches to find how often one number, called 
the divisor, is contained in another number, called the dividend; 










YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


1 


6 


both being of the same denomination; or to divide the latter 
number into as many equal parts as there are units in the former. 
The number arising from the operation, and which we are in quest 
of, is called the quotient; and if any thing be over at the end of 
the operation, it is called the remainder. 

Case I. —When the divisor does not exceed 12. 

Rule. —Find how often the divisor is contained in the least 
number possible of the left hand figures in the dividend; put 
down the number denoting how many, and carry the remainder 
(if any) to the next figure, calling every 1 you carry 10; divide 
the resulting number as before, put down the quotient figure, 
carry the remainder as so many tens to the next, &c. Proceed 
in this manner, till all the figures in the dividend have been 
divided. 

EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

Divid. 

Divisor . . 4) 78906 ( 2 rein. 

Quotient . . . 19726 
_4 

Proof. 78906 


No. 2. 


No. 8. 


5 ) 34567 ( 2 

6913 
_5 

34567 


12) 76677246 (6 

6389770 

12 


76677246 


EXPLANATION. 

In the first of these examples, say, 4’s in 7, once and 3 over, 
which considered as placed before 8, the next figure in the 
dividend, makes 38 : then 4’s in 38, 9 times and 2 over, which 
makes the next figure in the dividend 29 : then 4’s in 29, 7 
times and 1 over, which makes 0, the next of the dividend, 

10 : 4’s in 10, twice and 2 over, which makes 6, the last 
figure of the dividend, 26 : lastly, 4’s in 26, 6 times ; and the 
remainder is 2. In order to prove this or any other example, 
multiply the quotient by the divisor, and take in the remain¬ 
der in the first place, or place of units ; and if the product be 
the same with the dividend, the division is right. 

Case II.—When the divisor exceeds 12, and is such a number 
that any two figures in the multiplication table multiplied toge¬ 
ther will produce it, then the quotient may be found at two divi¬ 
sions in the same manner that the product may be found at two 
multiplications. But when the divisor consists of more figures 
than one, and cannot be thus produced :— 

Rule .—Seek how many times it is contained in the same 
number of figures on the left hand of the dividend ; and place 














ARITHMETIC. 


77 


the number thus obtained at the right, as the first of the quotient, 
(see Example No. I, following,) by which multiply the divisor, 
and place the product under the said figures of the dividend, 
drawing a line underneath it; then subtract the product from the 
figures of the dividend, and to the remainder bring down another 
figure and proceed as before. 

If the divisor be a larger amount than the same number of 
figures in the dividend, take in the next figure, as in Example 
No 3 


EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

No. 2. 

Divid. 


isor . . 252 ) 46242 ( 183 quotient. 

342 ) 48754 ( 142 

252 

342 

2104 

1455 

2016 

1368 

882 

874 

756 

684 

Remainder . . 126 

190 


No. 3. 

568)4784871 (8424 
4544 


2408 

2272 


1367 

1136 


2311 

2272 


39 


EXPLANATION. 

In the Example No. 1, after inquiry, you find it will not go 
twice, therefore set down 1 in the quotient, and place 252 
under 462 of the dividend, and, after subtraction, the remain¬ 
der is 210; to which bring down 4 from the dividend, and 










78 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


the sum is 2104 ; then seeking again, you find it will bear 8 
times, which placed in the quotient, and the divisor 252 mul¬ 
tiplied by it, the product is 2016, to be subtracted from 2104; 
which being done, the remainder is 88 ; to which 2, the last 
figure of the dividend, being brought down, it makes 882 ; 
then seeking again, you find it will go 3 times ; and the pro¬ 
duct of the divisor multiplied by 3, is 756 ; which subtracted 
from 882, there is 126 from the true remainder. 

Case III.—When a cipher or ciphers are found in the divisor. 
Rule. —Separate them with a dash of the pen from the rest of 
the divisor, and also cut off as many figures or ciphers from the 
right of the dividend, as you cut off ciphers from the divisor ; and 
divide the remaining figures towards the left hand by the remain¬ 
ing figures of the divisor: then, in order to find the true remain¬ 
der, bring down the figure which was cut off in the dividend, and 
place it to the right of the lowest row of figures, as in the follow¬ 
ing example :— 


EXAMPLE. 

16|0)4295(2(268 

32 

109 

96 


135 

128 


rz 


Here the cipher is cut off from the divisor, and 2 from the 
dividend: work it according to the rule, and you will find the 
quotient 268, and the remainder 72. 

Multiplication and Division will prove each other ; for in prov¬ 
ing Multiplication, if you divide the product by the multiplier, 
the quotient will be the multiplicand ; or in proving Division, if 

you multiply the divisor by the quotient, the product will be the 
dividend. 


REDUCTION. 

Reduction is the bringing quantities of one name or denomi¬ 
nation into quantities of another name or denomination, without 





ARITHMETIC. 


79 


changing the value. This is done either by multiplication or 
division. 

Case I.—When great names are to be brought into small, as 
pounds into shillings, shillings into pence, or pence into farthings, 
it is performed by multiplication. 

Rule. —Multiply the given quantity by as many of the next 
lower denomination as are contained in the denomination to be 
reduced. 


EXAMPLE. 

Reduce £2 into shillings. 

£ 2 
20 

40 shillings. 


EXPLANATION. 

Pounds being greater than shillings, the reduction is done 
by multiplication. Therefore,, if the £2 is multiplied by 20, 
it will give the answer. It is evident there must be 20 times 
as many shillings as there are pounds, because 20 shillings 
make a pound. 

Case II.—When small names or denominations are to be 
brought into great, as farthings into pence, pence into shillings, or 
shillings into pounds, it is performed by division. 

Rule .—Divide the given quantity by as many of its own de¬ 
nomination as are contained in the denomination to which it is to 
be reduced. 


EXAMPLE. 

Reduce 240 farthings into pence. 

4 ) 240 farthings. 
60 pence. 


EXPLANATION. 

Farthings being a less name than pence, the reduction is 
performed by division. Therefore, if 240 farthings are 
divided by 4, (because 4 farthings make a penny,) it will give 
the answer. It is evident there cannot be so many pence as 
there are farthings by four times, because a farthing is only 
the fourth part of a penny. 







80 


YOUNG MAN*S COMPANION. 


COMPOUND RULES. 

COMPOUND NUMERATION. 

Numeration of compound quantities differs from numeration 
of whole numbers ; for although the relative value of each figure, 
as to its position in each simple quantity, is the same as in whole 
numbers, yet compound quantities are constructed upon arbitrary 
principles, differing in different countries, each lower denomination 
bearing some proportion to the next higher. Thus, 1 farthing is 
the fourth part of a penny; 1 penny, the twelfth part of a shil¬ 
ling ; 1 shilling, the twentieth part of a pound. Upon this prin¬ 
ciple, the following table of money, as used in all commercial 
transactions in our own country, is constructed :—■ 

4 farthings . . make . . 1 penny. 

12 pence ... „ . . 1 shilling. 

20 shillings . . „ . . 1 pound. 

Numeration of compound quantities, then, teaches to express or 
arrange such quantities according to the relative value of each; 
and this is done by beginning with the highest denomination in 
regular succession, according to its respective value. Care should 
be taken to separate each simple quantity from the next, by two 
small dots or strokes; and whenever the regular succession of 
simple quantities is broken, the deficiency must be supplied by a 
nought or cipher. It should be observed, however, that pence 
and farthings are never separated by dots or strokes, as the other 
simple quantities. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


£ stands for Pounds. 
s. ,, Shillings. 

d. „ Pence. 

qrs. „ Farthings. 


\ stands for one quarter, or 
one farthing. 

| stands for one half, or one 
half-penny. 

| stands for three quarters, 
or three farthings. 


EXAMPLES. 

Express the following quantities in figures :— 

Twenty-seven pounds ten shillings and sixpene 
Answer .—£27 // 10 y/ 6. 






ARITHMETIC. 81 

Five hundred and ten pounds ten shillings anti tenpence three 

farthings. 

Answer .—£510 „ 10 „ 10|. 

Express the following quantities in words :— 

£27 „ 0 „ 3ft. 

Answer. —Twenty-seven pounds and threepence half-penny 

£139 ,, 6 „ 2J. 

Answer. —One hundred and thirty-nine pounds six shillings and 

twopence farthing. 

The notation of weights and measures is conducted on the 
same principles by the help of abbreviations, which will be in tra¬ 
duced in a succeeding part of this chapter. 

COMPOUND ADDITION. 

Compound Addition teaches to collect several numbers of dif¬ 
ferent denominations into one total. The reason of this rule is 
evident: for, in addition of money, as 1 in the pence is equal to 
4 in the farthings; 1 in the shillings to 12 in the pence; and 1 in 
the pounds to 20 in the shillings; carrying as directed is nothing- 
more than providing a method of digesting the money arising 
from each column properly in the scale of denomination ; and 
this reasoning will hold good in the addition of numbers of any 
denomination whatsoever, as weights and measures, &c. 

MONEY 

Before the learner proceeds in this part of arithmetic, it ie 
absolutely necessary to learn perfectly the following tables:— 




Pence Table. 





d. 

s. 

d. 

d. 



S. 

d. 

20 - are 

1 

8 

84 

are 

- 

7 

0 

24 - - - - 

2 

0 

90 

- 

- 

7 

6 

30 - - - - 

2 

6 

96 

- 

- 

8 

0 

36 - - - - 

3 

0 

100 

- 

- 

8 

4 

40 - - 

3 

4 

108 

- 

- 

9 

0 

48 - 

4 

0 

110 

- 

- 

9 

2 

50 - - - - 

4 

2 

120 

- 

- 

10 

0 

60---- 

5 

0 

130 

- 

- 

10 

10 

70---- 

5 

10 

132 

- 

- 

11 

0 

72---- 

6 

0 

140 

- 

- 

11 

8 

80 - - - - 

6 

8 

144 

- - - 

m 

12 

0 


% 


M 




Shillings Table . 


s. 


£ 

s. 

20 

- make - 

1 

0 

21 

- - - - 

1 

1 

30 

- - - - 

1 

10 

40 

- 

2 

0 

50 

- 

2 

10 

60 

- 

3 

0 

70 

- 

3 

10 

80 

- 

4 

0 

90 

- 

4 

10 

100 

- - - - 

5 

0 


d. 

0 sterling, or u SO\erejgn. 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


Rule .—Place the numbers so that those of the same denomina¬ 
tion may stand directly under each other, and draw a line below 
them. Add up the figures in the lowest denomination, and find 
how many ones of the next higher denomination are contained in 
their sum. Write down the remainder, and carrv the ones to 
the next denomination ; with which proceed as before ; and so 
on, through all the denominations to the highest, whose sum must 
be all written down; and this sum, together with the several 
remainders, is the total sum required. 


EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

No. 

2. 

> 

Jo. 3. 


No. 4. 


d. 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

5 . 


0 

0 

3 

1 

2 

4 

32 

4 

7 

0 3| 

2 

7 

0 

3 

6 

653 

2 

6| 

0 7^ 

3 

4 

6 

7 

9 

475 

7 

2 

0 5 

2 

7 

1 

4 

2 

45 

6 

7 

0 

15 

9 

5 

3 

4 

2 

3 

-'2 

2 2f 

£1 4 

6 

14 

1 

1 

1208 

4 

1 


EXPLANATION. 

Thus, in the first example, begin with the farthings, and 
say :—1 and 3 are 4, and 2 are 6, and 1 are 7 ; which being 
1 penny and 3 farthings, write f underneath, and carry 1 to 
the pence : then 1 and 6 are 7, and 5 are 12, and 7 are 19, 
and 3 are 22, and 4 are 26 ; then 26 pence being 2 shillings 













ARITHMETIC. 


83 


and twopence over, place 2 under the column of pence and 2 
under that of shillings ; the whole sum making two shillings 
and twopence three farthings. 

The other examples must be performed in the same manner, 
taking care to carry one pound for every 20 shillings, and one for 
every 10 in the pounds, as in simple addition. 


AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

By this weight are weighed all kinds of heavy goods, and all 
grocery wares ; as tobacco, sugars, fruit, and drugs ; also brass, 
copper, lead, tin, pewter, pitch, tar, resin, hemp, flax, soap, 
salt, &c. 


Table. 

4 quarters make 1 dram, marked - - dr. 

16 drams— 1 ounce - - - oz. 

16 ounces—1 pound - - - - - ~ lb. 

28 pounds—1 quarter of a hundred wght. qr. 

4 quarters—1 hundred weight - - - C. 

20 hundred weight—1 ton - - - T. 


EXAMPLES. 



No 

1. 


No. 

2. 


No. 3. 


No. 4. 


c. 

qr. 

lb. 

a 

qr 

. lb. 

C. 

qr. 

lb. 

lb. 

oz. 

dr. 

5 

1 

16 

24 

2 

12 

9 

1 

16 

24 

11 

12 

4 

2 

24 

42 

2 

0 

4 

3 

26 

42 

14 

15 

6 

3 

6 

16 

1 

12 

7 

1 

0 

64 

10 

11 

7 

1 

12 

25 

3 

24 

5 

3 

27 

29 

9 

10 

9 

0 

20 

19 

0 

20 

4 

3 

2 

16 

12 

13 

6 

2 

0 

26 

1 

22 

2 

2 

2 

27 

13 

14 

39 

3 

22 

155 

0 

6 

34 

3 

17 

206 

9 

11 


EXPLANATION. 

In the first example, the column of pounds, when added up, 
makes 78, which contains two 28’s, and 22 over; therefore set 
down 22 under the column of pounds, and carry 2 to the 
column of quarters, and so on. 
















84 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


TROY WEIGHT. 

By this weight are weighed jewels, gold, silver, pearls ; and 
the usual denominations are pounds, ounces, pennyweights, and 
grains, as in the following table :— 


Table. 


24 grains make - 

1 pennyweight 

- dwt. 

20 pennyweights - 

1 ounce - - 

- oz. 

12 ounces - - - 

1 pound - - 

lb. 


EXAMPLES. 



No. 1. 



No. 

2. 



No. 3. 


lb. 

oz. 

dwt. 

yr. 

lb. 

oz. 

dwt. 

yr. 

oz. 

dwt. 

9*' 

4 

5 

12 

10 

14 

6 

10 

11 

204 

10 

14 

5 

4 

16 

17 

24 

10 

11 

12 

96 

7 

17 

3 

11 

19 

20 

21 

6 

4 

17 

100 

11 

12 

4 

6 

7 

12 

22 

10 

12 

14 

56 

16 

20 

5 

1 

11 

12 

16 

11 

12 

13 

212 

10 

23 

4 

11 

12 

13 

22 

7 

6 

17 

96 

19 

12 

28 

6 

0 

12 

123 

4 

18 

12 

767 

17 

2 


Note .—That 1 lb. 2 oz. 11 dwt. 1 6yrs, troy is equal to a pound 
avoirdupois ; and a pound troy is about 13 oz. 2kdr. avoirdupois. 


By the help of the following tables, the pupil will be enabled 
to perform operations in all other rules for weights and measures. 

TABLES. 

Apothecaries' Weight. 

20 grains ( grs .) make - 1 scruple 

3 scruples - - - - 1 drachm 

8 drachms - - - - 1 ounce 

12 ounces - - - - 1 pound 

By these weights apothecaries compound their medicines; but 
they buy and sell their drugs by avoirdupois weight. 












ARITHMETIC. 


S5 


Cloth Measure. 

2£ inches—1 nail 

4 nails or 9 inches—1 qr. of a yard 

4 qrs. or 36 inches—1 yard 

5 qrs. or 45 inches—1 ell English 
3 qrs. or 27 inches—1 ell Flemish 

6 qrs. or 54 inches—1 ell French. 


Wool Weight. 


7 lb. make 1 clove 
2 cloves or 141b.— 1 stone 
2 stones or 281b.—1 todd 
6$ todds or 1821b.—1 wey 


2 weys or 3641b.—1 sack 
12 sacks or 4368 lb.—1 last 
240 lb. 1 pack of wool. 


Wine Measure. 


2 pints, (pt .)—1 quart, (qt.) 

4 quarts—1 gallon, (gall.) 

42 gallons—1 tierce 
63 gallons—1 hogshead, ( hhd .) 


84 gallons—1 puncheon 
2 hogsheads—1 pipe or butt 
2 pipes, or 252 gallons — 
1 tun 


Ale and Beer Measure. 


2 pints—1 quart 
4 quarts—1 gallon 
9 gallons—1 firkin 
2 firkins—1 kilderkin 


2 kilderkins, or 36 gallons 
—1 barrel 

1 barrel and a half, or 54 
gallons—1 hogshead 


A difference was formerly made between the ale and beer firkins, 
but latterly the distinction has been abandoned. 


Dry Measure. 


2 pints—1 quart 
2 quarts—1 pottle 
2 pottles—1 gallon 
2 gallons—1 peck 

4 pecks—1 bushel, land measure 

5 pecks—1 bushel, water measure 


4 bushels — 1 comb or half 

quarter 

2 combs—1 quarter 

5 quarters—1 wey 

2 weys, or 10 quarters—1 last 
36 bushels—1 chaldron of coals 


By this measure, corn, salt, and other dry goods are measured. 






86 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


Before the act for establishing uniformity in weights and mea¬ 
sures came into operation, which was in January 1826,— 

Inches. 


The wine gallon contained - 231 

The ale and beer gallon - - 282 

The corn gallon - 268^ 

The standard bushel - - - 2150*42 


Long Measure. 


3 barley-corns—1 inch 
12 inches—1 foot 
3 feet—1 yard 
5 feet—1 geometrical pace 

5 yards and a half—1 pole, 

perch, or rood 

6 feet, or 2 yards—1 fathom 


40 poles, or 220 yards—1 
furlong 

8 furlongs, or 1760 yards—- 
1 mile 

3 miles—1 league 
60 geographical miles, or 691 
English miles—ldegree 


In a mile are 8 furlongs ; 320 poles ; 1760 yards ; 5280 feet ; 
63,360 inches; 190,080 barley-corns. 


Land Measure. 

5\ yards—1 pole, perch, or rood 
40 poles—1 rood, or quarter of an acre 
. 160 poles in length and 1 in breadth—1 acre 
80 poles in length and 2 in breadth—1 acre 
40 poles in length and 4 in breadth—1 acre 
4 poles in length—1 chain 
10 chains in length and 1 in breadth—1 acre 


Time. 


60 seconds—1 minute 
60 minutes—1 hour 
24 hours—1 day 
7 days—1 week 


4 weeks—1 month 
13 months, 1 day, and 6 hours 
—1 Julian year 


in a year are 365 days 6 hours ; 8766 hours ; 525,960 
minutes; 31,557,600 seconds. 


The solar year is divided into 12 calendar months, which 
contain 365 days; and to know how many days are in each, 
observe attentively the following lines :— 




ARITHMETIC. 



Thirty days hath September, 

April, June, and November ; 

February hath twenty-eight alone, 

And all the rest have thirty-one. 

Except when Leap-year doth combine, 

Then February’s days are twenty-nine. 

APPLICATION. 

According to most chronologers, the world was created 4004 
years before Christ; how old is it this present year, 1839 ? 

Answer , 5843 years. 

The inhabitants of our earth, excepting Noah and his family, 
were destroyed for their wickedness by a flood. This direful 
event is described in the 6th, 7th, and 8th chapters of Genesis ; 
Noah being, as the sacred historian relates, “ a just man and 
perfect in his generation, found grace in the eyes of the Lord,” 
and was preserved in the ark, as were also his family, and a certain 
number of beasts and birds, to replenish the earth. 

The Deluge happened 2356 years before Christ; how long is 
that ago, this present year, 1839 ? 

Answer , 4195 vears. 

St. Paul's Cathedral cost £800,000 ; the Old Royal Exchange 
£80,000 ; the Mansion House £40,000 ; Blackfriars 1 Bridge 
£152,840; Westminster Bridge £389,000; and the Monument 
£13,000 ; what is the amount of these sums ? 

Answer , £1,474,840. 

COMPOUND SUBTRACTION. 

Compound Subtraction teaches to find the difference be¬ 
tween any two sums of various denominations. 

Rule. —Place the numbers as before, so that the less may be 
below the greater; then subtract each denomination of the 
less from the same denomination of the greater, and set down 
each remainder below, in its proper place: but if either of the 
lower numbers be greater than the number immediately above it, 
increase the upper one by as many as make an unit of the next 
superior denomination, and subtract the lower from this sum; 
then carry one to the next lower number, and proceed as before. 


88 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 




MONEY. 




/ 

EXAMPLES. 



No. 1. 

No. 2. 

No. 3. 


£ 

s. d. 

£ s. d. 

£ s. 

d. 

23 

6 4 

423 6 7 

174 16 

6J 

12 

3 2| 

25 12 9 

97 12 

<* 

11 

3 ii 

397 13 10 

77 4 

li 


Thus, in No. 2, say 9 from 7 I cannot, but 9 from 19 (bor¬ 
rowing 12) and there remains 10 : 1 that I borrowed and 12 
are IS ; 13 from 6 I cannot, but 13 from 26 (borrowing 20) 
and there remains 13: 1 that I borrowed and 5 are 6; 6 from 
3 I cannot, but 6 from 13 (borrowing 10) and there remains 
7 : 1 that I borrowed and 2 are 3 ; 3 from 2 I cannot, but 3 
from 12, and there remains 9: 1 that I borrowed from 4, and 
there remains 3. Prove it, as before, by addition. 


AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 


T. 

c. 

qr. 

lb. 

C. 

qr. 

lb. 

lb. 

oz. 

dr. 

44 

12 

1 

10 

246 

2 

12 

146 

2 

10 

39 

14 

2 

6 

164 

3 

22 

97 

10 

12 

4 

17 

3 

4 

81 

2 

18 

48 

7 

14 


TROY WEIGHT. 


lb. 

oz. 

diet. 

gr. 

lb. 

oz. 

dwt. 

gr. 

oz. 

dwt. 

gr. 

16 

3 

2 

1 

462 

4 

10 

11 

1247 

10 

13 

14 

5 

1 

1 

196 

9 

6 

16 

975 

16 

17 

1 

10 

1 

0 

265 

7 

3 

19 

271 

13 

20 


APPLICATION. 

Rmmymede, a place between Staines and Windsor, is rever¬ 
enced by every son of liberty, as the spot where the liberties of 
Englishmen received a solemn confirmation. There the tvrant 
King John was compelled to sign the famous charter, which is 
now, by way of preeminence, called Magna Charta, and has 
generally been considered as the bulwark of English liberty. 






























ARITHMETIC. 


89 


ik To make assurance doubly sure,” tlie ratification of tliis charter 
has been reiterated no less than thirty several times. 

This celebrated charter was wrested from John in 1215. How 
long has that happy event preceded 1840? 

Answer, 625 years. 

* V 

Richard I. of England defeated the French at Gisors in the 
department of Eure, and late province of Normandy, France, 
a.d. 1198. That monarch’s parole for the day was, “ Dieu et 
mon droit —God and my right,” which has almost ever since con¬ 
tinued the motto of the royal arms of England. How many 
years have intervened between that victory and the year 1840 ? 

Answer , 642 years. 

The prince of Orange, afterwards William III., landed at 
Torbay, in Devonshire, in 1688. He was invited over to 
England, to protect the country from the tyrannical oppressions 
of James II. This interesting event has been styled in the 
British history, the Glorious Revolution, and King William is 
much celebrated for his share in the transaction. 

This Revolution took place in 1688. How long is that ago 
this present year, 1839 ? 

Answer) 151 years. 

Suppose the effects of a bankrupt amount to £500, and he 
owes to A, £300 19s. 6c?.; to B, £519 7s. 6c?. ; to C, £218 
14s. 5c?.; and to D, £25 10s.; what is the deficiency ? 

Answer , £564 11s. 5d. 

Suppose a merchant, commencing business with £10,000, gains 
£1,099 15s. 6d. in the course of a year, and at the expiration of 
that period distributes in charity the sum of £114 16s. 4c?.; what 
is the balance remaining in hand ? 

Answer , £10,984 19s. 2c?. 

Post-chaises were invented by the French, and, according to 
Mr. Granger, introduced into England by Mr. William Tull, son 
of the well-known writer on husbandry. A sort of light open 
chaise, chariot, or calash, was, however, in use among the Romans, 
and said to have been invented by the Emperor Augustus, or 
Trajan. 

If a post-chaise and pair of horses cost £120 10s. and the 
latter be valued at £52 12s. what is the price of the chaise ? 

Answer , £67 18s. 


f»0 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


COMPOUND MULTIPLICATION. 


Compound Multiplication teaches to find the amount of 
any given number of different denominations, by repeating it any 
proposed number of times. 

Case I.— When the multiplier does not exceed 12. 

Rule .—Having placed the multiplier under the lowest denomi¬ 
nation of the multiplicand, all the denominations of the latter are 
to be multiplied by it, observing to reduce the several denomina¬ 
tions, and set down as in Compound Addition ; and to add the 
number carried to the succeeding product, as in Simple Multi¬ 
plication. 

EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

£ s. d. 

Multiply 7 12 6 

By ... . 6 

45 15 0 


No. 2. 

£ s. d. 

8 13 4 

_9 

78 0 0 


No. 3. 

£ s. d. 

15 5 4 

1 2 

183 4 0 


Here, in No. 1, say, 6 times 6 are 36 pence, which are just 
3s.; set down 0 in the place of pence, and carry 3 to the 
place of shillings (exactly the same as in Addition of Money) ; 
then 6 times 12 are 72, and 3 are 75, or £3 15s. ; set down 
15 in the place of shillings, and carry 3 to the pounds : then 
6 times 7 are 42, and 3 are 45. So the whole amount is 
£45 155. 


Case II.—When the given quantity exceeds 12, and is such 
a number that any two numbers in the Multiplication Table being 
multiplied together will produce it. 

Rule .—Multiply the given sum by one of these numbers, and 
the product by the other. 


EXAMPLES. 

No. 1. 

5 . d. 

SO ells of Holland, at 3 7 per ell. 

]0 

1 15 10 

3 


£5 7 6 














ARITHMETIC. 


91 


No. 2. 

s. d. 

45 lbs. of raw silk, at 15 4 per lb. 

5 


3 

16 

8 



9 

£34 

10 

0 


Case III.—When the given quantity cannot be produced by 
the multiplication of two small numbers. 

Rule .—Find the two figures which come the nearest to it, and 
multiply by them as before: then multiply the original sum by 
whatever number remains, and add it to the last product, and the 
*otal will be the answer. 


EXAMPLES. 

No. 1. 

£ s. 

9 cwt. of cheese, at 1 8 (by 2.) 

Multiply by 7 

9 16 
And_ U_ 

107 16 

2 16 

£110 12 


No. 2. 

£ s. d. 

113 cwt of hops, at 4 10 6 (by 3.) 

10 


4-5 

5 

0 

11 

497 

15 

0 

13 

11 

6 

£511 

6 

6 
















92 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


APPLICATION. 

Cork is the bark of a tree of the same name, a species of the 
oak. It grows in great abundance on the Pyrenean mountains, 
and in other parts of Spain; in France; and in the north of 
New England. The Egyptians made coffins of cork, which, 
being lined with a resinous composition, preserved dead bodies 
uncorrupted. But the chief use of cork in this country is to stop 
bottles. 

What are five gross of corks worth, at 3s. per gross ? 

Answer, 19s. Ofrf. 

Cotton is a plant, or shrub, of which there are several varieties, 
and not a few distinct species, propagated in the gardens of the 
curious among us. It makes a very considerable article of com¬ 
merce ; being used for various purposes, and furnishing various 
cloths, muslins, calicoes, dimities, and hangings; besides that, it 
is frequently joined with silk and flax, in the composition of their 
stuffs. 

What are 80 lbs. of cotton worth, at 2 s. 8 \d per lb. P 

Answer, £ 10 16$. 8 d. 

Musk is a dry, light, and friable substance, of a dark blackish 
colour, feeling somewhat smooth, or unctuous. It is brought 
from the East Indies, chiefly from the kingdom of Bantam, in 
the island of Java. The animal which produces it is of a very 
singular kind, not agreeing with any established genus: it is of 
the size of a common goat, but taller. The bag which contains 
the musk is situated under the creature’s belly, and is about the 
size of a hen’s egg. 

What are 95^ ounces of musk worth, at £2 2s. 3d. per ounce ? 

Answer , £201 14s. 10 \d. 

Watches were first made in the seventeenth century, and the 
glory of this excellent invention lies between Dr. Hooke and 
Mr. Huygens, but to which of them it properly belongs has been 
much disputed ; the English ascribing it to the former; and the 
Dutch, French, &c. to the latter. Hume, however, in his History 
of England, asserts, that pocket-watches were first brought into 
England from Germany, about the year 1577, having been in¬ 
vented at Nuremberg. 

What are 549 common silver watches worth, at £4 18s. 6d. 
per watch ? 

Answer 9 £2703 16s. 6d, 





ARITHMETIC. 


93 


COMPOUND DIVISION. 

This rule teaches to divide a compound number by a simple 
one. 

Case I.—When the divisor does not exceed 12. 

Rule .—Place the divisor and dividend as in simple numbers, 
and proceed with the pounds in the same manner: if there be 
any remainder, bring it into shillings by multiplying by 20, and 
add that amount to the shillings in the dividend ; if not, divide 
them without it; and so, by every denomination, bringing each 
remainder, if any, into the succeeding denomination, and dividing 
as before. 


examples. 



No 

. 1. 


No. 

2. 


No. 

3. 



£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

Divisor . 

.5)26 

12 

6 

12)246 

13 

6 

11) 531 

8 

2 

Quotient 

. 5 

6 

6 

20 

11 

1J 

48 

6 

o* 

"a 




5 



12 



11 

Proof . . 

26 

12 

6 

246 

13 

6 

531 

8 

2 


In the foregoing example, No. 1, say, 5’s in 26, 5 times and 
1 over, that is, £1 or 20s., which, with the 12 in the place of 
shillings, make 32s. ; then 5’s in 32, 6 times, and there re¬ 
mains 2s. or 24 d., which, with 6 in the place of pence, make 
30; then 5’s in 30, 6 times. 

Case II.—When the divisor exceeds 12, and is such a number 
that two figures multiplied together will produce it, the work may 
be performed by two divisors, thus :— 

EXAMPLES. 

No. 1. 

Divide £463 18s. 6d. into 18 equal parts. 

£ s. d. 

3 )463 18 6 

6)154 12 10 


Answer £25 15 5\ 



















94 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


No. 2. 

If 841b. of coffee cost £31 10s. what will 1 lb. cost ? 

£ s. d. 

7 )31 10 0 

12 )4 10 0 

Answer 7 6 


By Division of Money, if the amount of several articles is 
known, the price of one at the same rate may be found as well as 
by the Rule of Three (see Example No. 2) ; and as in Multi¬ 
plication of Money the price is multiplied by the quantity, so in 
Division of Money the price is divided by the quantity, to obtain 
an answer. 


APPLICATION. 

Mathematicians have demonstrated that light moves with such 
amazing rapidity, as to pass from the sun to our planet in about 
the space of eight minutes. Now, admitting the distance, as 
usually computed, to be 95,000,000 of English miles, at what 
rate per minute does it travel ? 

Answer , 11,875,000 miles. 

Longitude is the distance of a place from some first meridian, 
east or west, measured in degrees and minutes (60 of which make 
a degree) on the equator, half the circumference of the globe, or 
180 degrees. Longitude may also be reckoned by time: for the 
circumference of the earth being 360 degrees, and its diurnal 
revolution performed in 24 hours, it follows, that 1 hour of time 
is equal to 15 degrees of longitude ; and so in proportion for anv 
greater or less quantity: consequently, a place which has the sun 
1, 2, or 3 hours before or after another place, must be situated 
15, 30, or 45 degrees east or west of the meridian of such a 
place. Hence, dividing the longitude of any place by 15, will give 
the number of hours that place has the sun before or after persons 
who live under the first meridian. 

Petersburgh, the capital of the Russian empire, built by Peter 
the Great—and Constantinople, the chief city of the Ottoman 
empire, rebuilt by Constantine the Great—are situated in about 30 
degrees of eastern longitude from the meridian of London. 
What is the hour at those places when it is noon with us ? 

Answer, 2 o’clock in the afternoon. 




ARITHMETIC. 


95 


The circumference of our earth under the equator is 21,600 
geographical, or 25,020 English miles; now this body turning on 
its axis in about 24 hours, at what rate an hour, English measure, 
are the inhabitants situated under the equator carried from west 
to east by the rotation ? 

Answer , 1042| miles. 

The velocity of the parts of the earth near the equator greatly 
exceeds the rapidity of motion of the parts in latitude approaching 
the poles, as will be evident by the bare inspection of a terrestrial 
globe. In the parallel of latitude in which London is situated, a 
degree of longitude is only about 37 geographical, or 42 English 
miles. Consequently, the circumference of the globe in this 
parallel is but about 15,120 English miles. At what rate per 
hour are we carried by the earth’s diurnal rotation ? 

Answer , 630 miles. 

Lottery is a hind of public game at hazard, used in England, 
France, and Holland, in order to raise money for the service of 
the state, and appointed with us by act of parliament. The 
first lottery in England of which we have any account, was drawn 
at the west door of St. Paul's cathedral in 1569, and consisted 
of 40,000 lots, at 40s. each. The prizes were plate, and the 
profits were to be applied towards repairing the havens of this 
kingdom. In 1612, King James, for the plantation of English 
colonies in Virginia, appointed a lottery at the place where the 
one just mentioned had been determined. The principal prize of 
this last was 4000 crowns in fair plate. 

In the state lottery of the year 1787, one of the £20,000 
prizes came to a club consisting of 35 clerks in the India House. 
To how much did the share of each amount ? 

Answer , £571 8s 6|J. 

Posts, in their present improved state, are of very modern 
invention; for, even in France, the first place of their adoption, 
they were, in 1619, still unprovided with a letter-office. The 
year 1635, during Charles the First's reign, presents the first 
regular establishment of the kind in England. A private person 
projected, in 1683, the useful conveyance of letters and small 
parcels, by the penny post, throughout London and its suburbs. 
The annual gross amount of our foreign and inland post-offices, 
so far back as the year 1764, was stated to be £432,048. What 
was the quarterly, monthly, and weekly income at that period ? 

Answer , £108,012, quarterly; £36,004 monthly; £8,308 
12s. 3p/., weekly. 


96 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


COMPOUND REDUCTION. 


In Simple Reduction the pupil was only required to reduce 
one denomination to the next lower, or next higher denomination ; 
but in this he will be required to reduce quantities of the highest 
denomination to those of the lowest, and the contrary. This is 
not, properly speaking, a distinct rule in Arithmetic, but rather 
the application of the two preceding ones ; for all great names are 
brought into small by multiplication, and all small ones into great 
by division. 

Case I.—To bring numbers from a higher to a lower deno¬ 
mination. 

Rule .—Multiply the given number by the number denoting 
how many of the lower denomination make one of the higher. 

Thus : to bring pounds into shillings, multiply the pounds by 
20; to bring shillings into pence, multiply the shillings by 12 ; 
and to bring pence into farthings, multiply the pence by 4, &c. 
This is sometimes called Reduction Descending. 

Case II.—To bring numbers from a lower denomination into 
a higher. 

Rule .—Divide by the number denoting how many of the lower 
denomination are contained in one of the higher. 

Thus: to bring farthings into pence, divide by 4; to bring 
pence into shillings, divide by 12; and to bring shillings into 
pounds, divide by 20. This is sometimes called Reduction 
Ascending. 

O 

EXAMPLES. 


6| d, how many farthings ? 


In £32 145. 

No. 1. 

Of Money Ascending . 

£ s. d. 

32 14 6| 

20 


654 shillings. 

12 


7S54 pence. 
4 


Ans. 31419 farthings. 


No. 2. 

Of Money Descending, 

Proved thus :— 

4 ) 31419 farthings. 
12 )7854 % 

2,0 ) 65,4 6d. 

32 14*. 

Ans. £32 14 6$d. 













ARITHMETIC. 


97 


EXPLANATION. 


In the first of these examples, begin to multiply by 20, 
because 20 shillings make one pound; but as it contains a 
cipher on the right hand, take the 4 from the 14 shillings, and 
set it down in its proper place ; then multiply by the 2, saying 
twice 2 are 4, and 1 from the 14 which was left are 5 ; and 
twice 3 are 6: then multiply the 654 shillings by 12, because 
12 pence make one shilling, adding the 6 from the pence to 
the first figure multiplied : and lastly, multiply the 7854 pence 
by 4, because 4 farthings make one penny, adding the 3 far¬ 
things to the first figure multiplied. 

In the second example, the sum is proved by division, which 
is the way to ascertain any similar sum : here you begin by 
dividing the 31419 farthings by 4, in order to bring them into 
pence ; thus, 4’s in 31, 7 times, and 3 over ; 4’s in 34, 8 times, 
and 2 over ; 4’s in 21, 5 times, and 1 over ; 4’s in 19, 4 times, 
and 3 over, which are fths of a penny : and therefore you 
find that in 31419 farthings, are contained 7854 pence and 3 
farthings ; thus you proceed through the whole, dividing the 
pence by 12 to bring them into shillings, and the shillings by 
20 to bring them into pounds, taking care to carry out the 
remainder, which must be brought down when the answer is 
given. 


Pounds may be brought into pence at once by multiplying by 
240; or into farthings by multiplying by 960 ; and on the con¬ 
trary, farthings and pence may be brought at once into pounds by 
dividing by the same numbers. 

To reduce foreign or English coin into pounds sterling, multi¬ 
ply the given number of pieces by the shillings, pence, and 
farthings that are in one piece, and the product will be of the 
same name; which bring into pounds sterling by division. 

It lias already been stated, that all great names are brought 
into small by multiplication ; and all small ones into great by 
division; and as this observation will apply to the reduction of 
all kinds of weights and measures, an example or two shall suffice 
without further directions. 


o 


98 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


EXAMPLES. 

Ill 456(7. Sqr. 27 lb. of copper how many pound* i 

C. qr. lb. 

456 3 27 
4 


1827 

28 


14623 

3656 


Answer 51183/5. 


In 47,964 grains how many pounds troy? 

grs. 

24)47964 (1998 dwt. 


dwt. 

2,0 ) 199,8 

12 )99 18 d wt. 

8 lb. Soz. 


12 grs. 


Answer , 8 lb. Soz . 18 dwt. 12 gr. 


APPLICATION. 

Handel’s first Commemoration at Westminster Abbey, in 1784, 
is said to have yielded £12,746. How many crowns, half-crowns, 
pence, and farthings, are in that sum ? 

Answer , 50,984 crowns ; 101,968 half-crowns ; 3,059,040 
pence; 12,236,160 farthings. 

Westminster Bridge is reckoned one of the most complete and 
elegant structures of the kind in the known world. It was begun 


24 


239 

216 


236 

216 


204 

192 


















ARITHMETIC. 


99 


in 1738, and finished 1750, at the expense of £218,800, defrayed 
by the parliament. 

Blackfriars’ Bridge, though now gone to decay, and under 
repair, was originally a very fine bridge, and its architecture has 
been spoken of in terms of high commendation. It commands a 
fine view of the Thames, and discovers the majesty of St. Paul's 
in a very striking manner. It was begun in 1760, and completed 
in 10 years and three quarters, at the expense of £152,840 
sterling, which was discharged by a toll upon the passengers. 

How many farthings are in the amount of the sum expended in 
building the above-mentioned two bridges; and how many half- 
crowns, sixpences, pence, and farthings, are in their difference ? 

Answer , 356,774,400 farthings, in the whole; 527,680 half- 
crowns ; 2,638,400 sixpences ; 15,830,400 pence; and 63,321,600 
farthings in the difference. 

The celebrated Colossus of Rhodes, deemed one of the wonders 
of the world, was a statue of brass, erected to the Sun, at the 
mouth of the harbour of Rhodes, a city in an island of the same 
name, in the Mediterranean Sea. It was 105 feet high, and pro¬ 
portioned in all its parts ; and according to the general opinion, 
the ships of that period passed between its legs. 

Chares, of Lindus, devoted 12 years to the completion of the 
work, which occurred 288 years b.c. Sixty-six years subsequent 
to its erection, an earthquake overthrew it, and it lay neglected 
894 years, that is, till the year of our Lord 672 ; when Moarvias, 
the sixth caliph or emperor of the Saracens, having taken Rhodes, 
sold the brass of this famous statue to a Jewish merchant, who 
loaded 900 camels with it. Allowing only 800 lb. weight to every 
camel, (though some will carry 1200 or 1300/5.) how many tons 
did the Colossus weigh ? 

Answer, 321 T. 8 C. %qr. 8 lb. 

The invention of bells is by some attributed to the Egyptians, 
and they were anciently known among the Persians, the Greeks, 
and the Romans. 

There are several bells of great magnitude in England; par¬ 
ticularly Tom of Lincoln, weighing 11,200 pounds ; Peter of 
Exeter, weighing 12,500 pounds ; and “Mighty Tom” of Christ- 
Church, Oxford, weighing 17,000 pounds. But the largest bell 
in the known world is that of Moscow, the ancient capital of the 
Russian empire, of which a very particular and interesting account 
is given by Dr. Clarke of Cambridge, in the first volume of his 
Travels. Its height is 19 feet, its circumference at the bottom 


100 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


63 feet 11 inches, its greatest thickness 23 inches, and its weight 
432,000 pounds. How many tons, &c. do each of these bells 
weigh ? 

Answer , The great bell at Lincoln, 5 T. ; at Exeter, 5 T. 
11C. 2qr. 12$.; at Oxford, 7 T, 11 G. 3qr. 4tlb . ; and at Mos¬ 
cow, 192 T. 17 C. 16$. 


THE RULE OF THREE DIRECT. 

The Rule of Three Direct teaches by three numbers given to 
find a fourth, in such proportion to the third as the second is to 
the first; for which reason it is termed the Rule of Proportion ; 
it is also called the Rule of Three, from its having three numbers 
given ; and because of its extensive use in arithmetic, it is often 
called the Golden Rule. 

Rule .—State the question by placing the given numbers in 
such order that the first and third terms be of the same kind; 
and the second of the same with the fourth term, or the answer 
required, (see Example No. 1.) 

If the first and third terms be of different denominations, reduce 
them into one ; and if the second be of more denominations than 
one, as for instance, pounds, shillings, &c. reduce it into the lowest 
name mentioned, (see Example No. 2.) 

Multiply the second and third terms together, and divide that 
product by the first, and the quotient will be the answer, in the 
same denomination with the second term ; but if after the division 
there be a remainder, reduce it into the next denomination below, 
and divide by the same divisor, and the quotient will be so many 
of the next name, and so on. The method of proof is by invert¬ 
ing the question. 


EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 


If 50$. of indigo cost £10, what will 1008$. cost f 


lb. 

If 50 


lb. 

:: 1008 
_U) 

5,0 ) 1008,0 

Ans. £201 12s. 


£ 

10 






arithmetic. 


101 


No. 2. 

If 4 C. Sqr. of sugar cost £5 15s. 7 d, what will 4 hogsheads 
come to, weighing 4 2C. lqr . 14/5.? 


C. qr. 

£ s. d. 

C. q 

If 4 3 

: 5 15 7 

:: 42 . 

4 

20 

4 

19 

115 

169 

28 

12 

28 

152 

1387 pence. 

1366 

38 

338 

532/5. 


4746/5. 



1387 


33222 

37968 

14238 

4746 


532 ) 6582702 ( 12373 pence. 
532 


1262 12 ) 123734 

1064 - 1 

- 2,0)103,11 d. 

1987 -- 

1596 Ans. £51 1 Is. 1 \d. 


3910 

3724 


1862 

1596 


266 

4 


532 ) 1064 ( 2 farthings. 
1064 


12,373 pence 2 farthings, reduced into pounds, &c. will give the 
above answer, £51 11s. 1 























102 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


APPLICATION. 

Mead is a wholesome, agreeable liquor, prepared of honey and 
water. It is a liquor of very ancient use in Britain, and some 
persons deem the best sort scarcely inferior to foreign wines. It 
is thought probable, that before the introduction of agriculture 
into our island, mead was the only strong liquor known to its in¬ 
habitants ; and it continued to be a favourite beverage among 
them and their posterity, long after they had become acquainted 
with other liquors. 

If two gallons of mead be worth 4s. 9\d. what is the value of a 
hogshead, wine measure ? 

Answer , £7 10s. 11 %d. 

Metheglin is a species of mead, prepared from honey boiled 
with water and fermented, and one of the most pleasant and 
general drinks the northern parts of Europe afford, and was much 
used among the ancient inhabitants. 

From the custom of drinking a beverage made with honey for 
thirty days' feast after a grand wedding, comes the expression 

I honey-moon,' which is a phrase used by the Teutones, who were 
an ancient people that inhabited the northern parts of Germany. 
Attila, king of Hungary, celebrated for the horrible ravages that 
he committed both in Gaul and Italy, drank so freely of hydromel 
(a sort of mead or metheglin, as the word imports) on his wedding- 
day, that he was found suffocated at night ; an event which 
occurred a.d. 453 ; and with him expired the empire of the Huns. 

If a hogshead of metheglin, wine measure, be worth £7 10s. 

II \d. what is the value of two gallons ? 

Answer , 4s. 9\d. 

Glass is a transparent, solid, brittle, factitious body, produced 
from a species of salt and sand, or stone, by the action of fire. 

The discovery of glass, according to Pliny, took place by acci¬ 
dent, in Syria, at the mouth of the river Belus, by certain mer¬ 
chants driven thither by the fortune of the sea. Being obliged 
to live there, and dress their victuals by making a fire on the 
ground, and plenty of the plant kali being on the spot, this herb 
being burnt to ashes, and the sand or stones of the place acci¬ 
dentally mixing with it, a vitrification was undesignedly made; 
from whence the hint was taken, and easily improved. 

The glass manufacture was first begun in England, in 1557, in 
London; improved in 1635; and brought to a great degree of 
perfection in the reign of King William III. But the first glass 


ARITHMETIC. 


108 


plates, for looking-glasses and coach-windows, were made in 1673, 
at Lambeth. 

If 17&8 elegant wine glasses were bought for £65 2s. how must 
they be sold per dozen, or per glass, to gain ten guineas by the 
sale of the whole ? 

Answer , 10$. 6d. per dozen ; or 10 \d. per glass. 

THE RULE OF THREE INVERSE. 

The Rule of Three Inverse, or, as it is often called, of Indirect 
Proportion, is used, when of four numbers the third bears the 
same proportion to the first as the second does to the fourth; 
therefore, the less the third term is in respect to the first, the 
greater will the fourth be in respect to the second. 

Ride .—State the question inversely; reduce the terms as in 
the Rule of Three Direct. Multiply the first and second terms 
together, and divide their product by the third, and the quotient 
will be the answer. 


EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

If a board be 9 inches broad, how much in length will make a 
square foot ? 

in. b. in. 1. in. b. 

If 12 : 12 : : 9 

12 


9) 144 

Answer , 16 inches in length. 


No. 2. 

How many yards of sarcenet, of Sqr. wide, will line 9 yards 
of cloth of 8 qr. wide ? 

qr. w. qr. 1. qr. w. 

If 8 : 9 :: 3 

8 

3)72 

Answer , 24 yards. 







YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


104 

To know wlien the question belongs to the direct, and when to 
the indirect or inverse rule, consider whether the answer to the 
question ought to be more or less than the second number: ii 
more, then the lesser of the first and third numbers must be the 
divisor; but if less, then the greater of the first and third numbers 
must be the divisor. 


APPLICATION. 

If a person lend another the sum of £200 for 12 months, ho\. 
many months should the latter lend the former £150, to requite 
the obligation ? 

Answer , 16 months. 

How many yards of matting, 2 feet 6 inches wide, will cover a 
floor that is 27 feet long and 20 feet broad ? 

Answer , 72 yards. 

The carpet manufacture is said to have been introduced into 
France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV. The art was 
brought to London in 1750, by two men who quitted France in 
disgust, and came here to procure employment. We have manu¬ 
factories for carpets that are much esteemed, at Axminster, 
Wilton, Kidderminster, and other places. 

How many yards of carpeting, Sqr. broad, will cover a room 
which is 3 yards in length and 4 in breadth ? 

Answer , 16 yards. 


COMPOUND PROPORTION, OR THE RULE 

OF FIVE. 

Compound Proportion teaches to resolve such questions as 
require two or more statings by simple proportion, and that 
whether they are direct or inverse. 

This is called the Rule of Five, from its having five numbers or 
terms given to find a sixth. 

If the proportion be direct, the sixth term must bear such a 
proportion to the fourth and fifth, as the third bears to the first 
and second ; but if the proportion be inverse, the sixth must bear 
such proportion to the fourth and fifth, as the first bears to the 
second and third. 


arithmetic. 


105 


Rule. —In placing the three first terms, let the principal cause 
of gain, loss, or action, &c. be put first; that which denotes time, 
distance, &c. second ; and the remaining one in the third. Then, 
in order to find whether the proportion be direct or inverse, place 
the two other terms which move the question underneath those of 
the same name ; if the blank fall under the third term, the pro¬ 
portion is direct; if under the first or second, it is inverse. 

In Direct Proportion, multiply the two first terms together for 
a divisor, and the three last for a dividend (see Example No 1.) 
In Inverse Proportion, multiply the third and fourth terms together 
for a divisor, and the other three for a dividend, (see Example 
No. 2,) and the quotients in each case will be the answer. 

Note .—Every question in each part of this rule may be proved 
by two statements in the Rule of Three. 

EXAMPLES. 

No. 1. 

If £100 principal in 12 months gain £5 interest, what will 
£216 gain in 7 months P 


£ pr. 


mo. 

£ int. 

£ 

100 

• 

• 

12 

:: 5 : 

246 

12 




7 

J 200 




1722 


5 


1200) 8610 (£7 
8400 


210 

20 


1200)4200(36-. 

3600 


600 

12 


1200 ) 7200 ( 6d . 
7200 


Answer , £7 3s. 6 d. 

P 









10G 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


No. 2. 

If £100 principal in 12 months gain £6 interest, what prin¬ 
cipal will gain £20 interest in 8 months P 


£ pr. 

mo. £ int . mo. 

£ int. 

100 

: 12 :: 6 : 8 

:: 20 

12 

6 


1200 

48 the 

divisor. 

20 

— 


48)24000 ( 

£500 principal. 


24000 

• 



Answer., £500 principal. 



APPLICATION. 

The chief pilchard fisheries are along the coasts of Dalmatia, in 
the Gulf of Venice ; on the coasts of France, between Belle-Isle 
and Brest; and along the shores of Cornwall and Devonshire. 

In 1767, there were at one time enclosed in St. Ive’s Bay, 
Cornwall, 7000 hogsheads, each containing 35,000 fish; in all, 
245,000,000. The cash paid annually, on an average of ten 
years, for pilchards exported from Cornwall, amounted to 
£49,325 105. 

Suppose 6 men could barrel up 24 hogsheads of pilchards in 2 
days, how many days would 100 men require to fill the number 
of hogsheads above mentioned ? 

Answer , 35 days. 

The great colony of herrings, we are told, sets out from the 
Icy Sea about the middle of winter, composed of such numbers as 
exceed all powers of imagination. Idle main body begins in a 
certain latitude to separate into two grand divisions, one of which 
moves westward, and pours down the coasts of America; the 
other division takes a more eastern direction, and falls in with the 
great island of Iceland, about the beginning of March. The 
Shetland Isles oblige them again to divide into two shoals, which 
shape their course along the eastern and western coasts of the 
British Isles; and the last are observed to be much larger and 
fatter, as well as considerably more abundant, than those on the 








ARITHMETIC. 


107 


east side. The immediate cause of their migration is supposed to 
be their strong desire to remove to warmer seas, for the sake of 
depositing their spawn, where it will vivify with more certainty 
than under the frigid zone. 

Loch Fyne, Scotland, being one of the favourite haunts of the 
herring, at certain seasons of the year is frequented by innume¬ 
rable shoals, insomuch that the lake is said to contain one part 
water and two parts fish. In a single bay of this lake above 600 
boats are sometimes employed in taking them. Each of these 
vessels clears on an average annually from £40 to £50, according 
to Dr. Garnett, who adds, that 20,000 barrels, each on a medium 
containing 700 herrings, have been caught and cured in one season 
in Loch Fyne. 

If two boats could take four thousand herrings in six days, how 
many weeks (exclusive of Sundays) would the number of boats 
mentioned above require to take the entire quantity of fish speci¬ 
fied by Dr. Garnett ? 

Answer , 11 weeks 4 days. 

A steam-engine is a machine that derives its moving power 
from the elasticity and condensibility of the steam of boiling 
water. It is allowed to be the most valuable present that the 
arts of life have ever received from the philosopher. 

To such an amazing perfection has this machine at length been 
brought, that the consumption of one bushel of good pit-coal will 
enable it to raise 6000 hogsheads of water ten feet high, or to do 
the work of ten horses for one hour. Upon this supposition, how 
many gallons of this liquid would 144 pecks of coal raise to a 
similar height ? 

Answer , 13,608,000 gallons. 


PRACTICE. 


This rule is so called, from its frequent use and brevity in 
casting up all sorts of goods or merchandise. 

It is performed by taking what are called aliquot or even parts 
of the different denominations; by which means many tedious 
reductions may be avoided. It would be an endless task to intro¬ 
duce all the easy methods of operation, but the general rules are 
all given with examples to illustrate them. 


108 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


All questions in the Rule of Three, where the first number in 
the statement is 1, may be performed by this rule; but it is 
necessary first to learn the following tables by heart:— 


Tables. 


Parts of a Shilling. 


Parts of a Pound. 



s. d. 

1 0 is 1 

1 8 ~ h 

2 0 - 1 

2 6-1 

3 4 - i 

4 0 - £ 

5 0—1 

6 8 - J 

10 0 — \ 


Case I,—When the price is less than a penny, divide by the 
aliquot parts that are in a penny; then by 12 and 20, which will 
give the answer. 


EXAMPLE. 

2106 pounds of iron at \d. per pound. 

lbs. 

\d. is |—2 ) 2106 
12)1053 
2,0) 8,7 9 d. 
Answer , £4 7 s. 9 d. 


Case II.—When the price is less than a shilling, divide by 
the aliquot parts that are in a shilling; add them together, and it 
will give the answer in shillings, which divide by 20, as before. 








ARITHMETIC. 


109 


EXAMPLE. 

246 yards of riband at 3 d. per yard. 

yds . 

3c?. is J—4 ) 246 

2,0) 6,1 6d. 
Answer , £3 Is. 6c?. 


Case III.—When the price is more than a shilling, but less 
than two, set the given quantity down as so many shillings, but 
draw no line under it; then take the aliquot parts of so much of 
the price as is more than a shilling, as in the last rule ; add all the 
amounts together, and the sum will be the answer in shillings. 

example. 

6806 pounds of sugar at Is. 3 Id. per pound. 

lbs. 

3c?. is \ —4 ) 6806 
J d. is l of 3c?.—6 ) 1701 6c?. 

283 7c?. 


2,0)879,1 lc?. 
Answer , £439 11s. lc?. 


Case IV.—When the price is any even number of shillings 
less than 20, multiply the given quantity by half the price, 
doubling the first figure of the product and calling it shillings; 
the rest of the product will be pounds. 


EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

2476?6s. of tea at 8s. per lb. 

lbs. 

2476 

4 


No. 2. 

2967 yds. of cloth at 14s. per yd, 

yds. 

2967 

7 


Answer , £990 8s. 


Answer , £2076 18s. 
















110 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Case V.—When the price is any odd number of shillings 
under 20, multiply the given quantity by the price, and the 
product will be the answer in shillings. 

EXAMPLE. 

4962 gallons of spirits at 19s. per gallon. 

gal. 

4962 

19 

2,0 ) 9427,8 
Answer , £4713 18s. 


Case VI.—When the price is shillings, or shillings and pence, 
and they are an aliquot part of a pound, divide by the aliquot 
part, and the quotient will be the answer in pounds. 

example. 

254 yards of cloth at 10s. per yard. 

yds. 

10s. is \—2 ) 254 
Answer , £127 


Case VII.—When the price is shillings and pence, and they 
are not an aliquot part of a pound, multiply the given quantity 
by the shillings, and take parts for the pence, &c.; add them 
together, and the sum will be the answer in shillings. 

example. 

427 yards of Irish, at 5s. 9d. per yard. 

yds. 

6d. is 1—2)427 
5 


2135 

3d. is £ of 6d. — 2 ) 213 6d. 

106 9 d. 


2,0)245,5 3d. 


£122 15s. 3d. Answer, 















ARITHMETIC. 


Ill 


Case VIII.—When the given price is pounds and shillings, 
multiply the quantity by the pounds, and proceed with the 
shillings, if they are even, as in Case IV. (see the following 
example); but if odd, take aliquot parts, add them together, and 
the sum will be the answer. 


EXAMPLE. 

649 pieces of Irish, at £4 6 a*. per piece. 


pieces. 

pieces. 

649 

649 

4 

3 

2596 

£194 145. 

194 145. 



£2790 145. Answer. 


Case IX.—When the price is pounds, shillings, and pence, 
and the shillings and pence are an aliquot part of a pound, mul¬ 
tiply the given quantity by the pounds, as in the last case; and 
take parts for the shillings and pence, as in Cases VI. and VII.; 
add them together, and the sum will be the answer. 

example. 

£74 pieces of Irish, at £7 6s. 8d. per piece. 

pieces. 

6s. 8d. is 3—3 ) 274 

7 

1918 

91 6s. 8 cl. 

£2009 6s. 8 d. Answer. 


Case X.—When the price is pounds, shillings, pence, ana 
farthings, and the shillings and pence are not an aliquot part of a 
pound, reduce the pounds and shillings into shillings; multiply 
the given quantity by the shillings, as in Case VII.; take parts 
for the pence and farthings, as in Case II. 













112 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION, 


EXAMPLE. 


279 pieces of muslin, at £6 11s. 9^ per piece. 


£ s. 

pieces, 

6 11 

6 d. is ±—2 ) 279 

20 

131 

131a. 

279 


837 


279 


3c?. is | of 6d.—2 ) 
^d. is 1 of 3d.—6 ) 


36549 
139 6d. 
69 2 
11 7| 


2,0)3676,9 10| 


Answer , £1838 9s. 10^d. 


The following are the principal signs or characters used as 
abbreviations in the subsequent rules of arithmetic:— 

+ plus or more, the sign of addition, as 6 + 2 is 8. 

subtraction, as 6 — 2 is 4. 

multiplication, as 6 X 2 is 12. 
division, as 6-J-2 is 3. 
equality, as 6 + 2 = 8. 

proportion, as 2 : 4 :: 6 : 12 


VULGAR FRACTIONS. 

A fraction is a part or parts of something considered as an 
unit or integer, and consists of two parts or quantities, one written 
over the other with a line between them, as J, f, &c. 

The number placed below the line is called the denominator of 
the fraction, because it denominates or shows how many parts the 
unit is broken or divided into ; and the number above the line is 
called the numerator, because it enumerates or shows how manv 
of those parts are contained in the fraction. 

A vulgar fraction is either proper, improper, compound, oi 
mixed. 


— minus or less, 

X multiplied by, 

- 7 - divide by, 

= equal to, 

: is to 4 c 

^ the signs ot 


fi 

>> 

i) 

i) 


SO IS 











ARITHMETIC. 


113 


A proper fraction is such whose numerator is less than the 
denominator, as f, J, §, Jg, &c. 

An improper fraction is when the numerator is equal to, or 
greater than its denominator, as &c. 

A compound fraction is the fraction of a fraction, and known 
by the word of, as \ of §, of |, &c. 

A mixed number is composed of a whole number and a frac¬ 
tion, as 4J, 12J, 142J-J, &c. 

REDUCTION OF VULGAR FRACTIONS. 

Case I.—To reduce a vulgar fraction to its lowest terms, 
divide the greater term by the less, and that divisor by the re¬ 
mainder following, till nothing remains: then by the last re¬ 
mainder divide both parts of the fraction, and the quotients will 
give the fraction required. If the remainder is 1, the fraction is 
already in its least terms. 


EXAMPLE. 

Reduce ^ to its lowest terms. 

2832 ) 12848 ( 4 then 16 ^ ( = JjJ, the Answer. 

1520) 2832 ( 1 

1312)1520(1 

208)1312(6 

64 )208 ( 3 

16)64(4 


When the numerator and the denominator do each of them 
end with ciphers, strike off an equal number of ciphers in both, 
and the remaining figures will be a fraction of the same value, 
which reduce to its lowest terms. 

Case II.—To reduce a compound fraction to a single one, 
multiply all the numerators together for a new numerator, and the 
denominators for a new denominator. Reduce the new fraction 
to its lowest terms by the last case. When it can be done, you 
may cancel the fractions, by dividing the numerator and denomi¬ 
nator of any two terms by the same number, and use the quotient 
instead. 









114 


young man’s companion. 


EXAMPLE. 

Reduce J of f of ? to a single fraction. 

Thus |x 5 7 X •= s g,or = f,the fraction. 

Or thus, l of l of Yo — 7 > as before. 

Case III.—To reduce whole or mixed numbers into an im¬ 
proper fraction. 1. If the whole number has no assigned deno¬ 
minator, an unit subscribed underneath must be the denominator. 
2 . If the whole number has an assigned denominator, multiply 
the whole number by the assigned denominator, and the product 
will be the numerator to the assigned denominator. 

EXAMPLE. 

Reduce 27 into a fraction, whose denominator shall be 12. 

Thus, 27 X 12 as 324. Then the fraction required. 


ADDITION OF VULGAR FRACTIONS. 

Case I.—To add fractions together, having different denomi¬ 
nators, reduce the given fractions to a common denominator. 
Add all the numerators together for a new numerator, under 
which subscribe the common denominator. And if it is an 
improper fraction, reduce it to its proper terms, and you have the 
sum of all the fractions. 


example. 

Add J, and f together. 

Thus, l+i + 5 = S + S + S = S° r ls> A ™ wer - 

Case II.—To add mixed numbers, reduce the fractions to a 
common denominator, and add them together, as before directed, 
and annex their sum to the sum of the integers. 

EXAMPLE. 

Add 4^ and 17| together. 

First, 1 + f = | + S — Tf, or? + { = J, or 1J. 

Then, 4 -f- 17 + 1| = 22|, the sum required. 


ARITHMETIC. 


115 


SUBTRACTION OF VULGAR FRACTIONS. 

Prepare tlie fractions as before directed in Addition. Subtract 
one numerator from the other, and their difference will be a new 
numerator, under which subscribe the common denominator. 

EXAMPLE. 

It is required to subtract 5 from j". 

Thu9 > H -! = ,1 - a = S > or 1 > the difference required. 


MULTIPLICATION OF VULGAR FRACTIONS. 

Reduce compound fractions to simple ones, per Case II.; 
bring mixed numbers into improper fractions, per Case III. 

Multiply the numerators together for a new numerator, and the 
denominators for a new denominator; or, if the fractions will 
cancel, do it as in Case II. 


EXAMPLE. 

Multiply g by 

Thus, j® X ft ss 1, the product required. 

DIVISION OF VULGAR FRACTIONS. 

Prepare the fractions as before directed in Multiplication. 

Multiply the numerator of the dividend into the denominator 
of the dividing fraction for a new numerator, and multiply the 
other numerator and denominator together for a new denomi¬ 
nator ; or invert the divisor, and then proceed as in the last rule. 

example. 

Divide l by f. 

Thus, ^ -r -1 or ^ x \ — 7 ° or 1*> the quotient required. 


116 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


/ 


DECIMAL FRACTIONS. 

A Decimal Fraction is a fraction whose denominator is 
always unity or 1, with one or more ciphers. Thus, an unit may 
be imagined to be equally divided into 10 parts, and each of 
these into ten more; so that, by a continual decimal subdivision, 
the unit may be supposed to be divided into 10, 100, 1000, and 
so on without end, all being equal parts, called tenth, hundredth, 
thousandth part of unit or 1. 

In decimal fractions the figures of the numerator only are 
expressed, the denominator being omitted, because it is always 
known to consist of an unit with so many ciphers as there are 
places in the numerator. 

A decimal fraction is distinguished from an integer by a point 
prefixed thus, *5 which stands for or J; *75, for or j; 
•2752, S; and 1^-010, for 12— or &c. 

Ciphers at the right hand of a decimal fraction alter not its 
value, for *5, or *50, or *5000, are each of them the same value, 
and are equal to £ or \ ; but ciphers at the left hand, in a deci¬ 
mal fraction, decrease the value in a tenfold proportion, for *05 is 
ij* ; also -0005 is &c. 

A finite decimal is that which ends at a certain number of 
places; but an infinite is that which no where ends. A circu¬ 
lating or recurring decimal is that wherein one or more figures are 
continually repeated. Thus, 64*766666, &c. or 64*70, is called a 
single circulating or recurring decimal, or repetend. And 
147*642642, &c. or 147*042, is called a compound recurring 
decimal, or repetend. 

In all operations, if the result consists of several nines, reject 
them, and make the next superior place an unit more. Thus, 
for 17*1999 write 17*2; and for 12*99 write 13, &c. 


ADDITION OF DECIMALS. 


Addition of Decimals is performed after the same manner 
as addition of whole numbers; care being taken that like parts 
be placed under one another; and from their sum or difference 
cut off so many decimal parts as there are the most in any of 
the given numbers. 



I 


ARITHMETIC. 


117 


EXAMPLE. 

Wlmt is the sum of *0476, 21*476, *0067, *64, 17*6. and 
•20764 ? 


•0476 

21*476 

*0067 

•64 

17*6 

*20764 


Answer 39-97794 


To add decimals wherein there are single repetends, repeat 
the circulating decimals till, each line has an equal number of 
decimal places, and ends directly under each other, annexing a 
cipher or ciphers to the finite terms : then add as before ; only 
increase the sum of the right hand row with as many units as it 
contains nines, and the figure in the sum under that place will be 
a repetend.. 

. EXAMPLE. 

What is the sum of 47*67/, 4*02642, 82*0, 6 * 1 /, and 27*0640? 

47*67/444 

4-02642C 

32*066666 

6*1/4444 

27*064066 

Answer 117*576640 


SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS. 

Subtraction of Decimals is performed after the same 
manner as subtraction of whole numbers; care being taken that 
like parts be placed under one another ; and from their sum, or 
difference, cut off so many decimal parts as there are the most in 
any of the given numbers. 

example. 

What is the difference between 176 and 10*764? 

From 176* 
take 10*764 

Diff. 165*236 











118 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS. 

Multiplication of Decimals is also performed as in whole 
numbers, no regard being had to the decimals, as such, till the 
product is obtained; then observe the following rules :—1. Strike 
off so many figures from the right hand of the product as there 
are decimal places in the multiplier and multiplicand. 2. If there 
are not so many figures in the product, supply the deficiency by 
prefixing ciphers to the left hand, to make them equal. 3. L 
the number is to be multiplied by 10, 1000, &c. remove the 
separating point in the multiplicand so many places towards the 
the right hand as there are ciphers in the multiplier. 

example. 


Multiply *17504 by 76. 

•17504 

76 

Prod. 13*30304 


DIVISION OF DECIMALS. 

In Division of Decimals the work is likewise performed 
as in whole numbers; the only difficulty is in valuing the quotient, 
which will be made easy by observing either of the following 
general rules:—The first figure in the quotient is always of the 
same value with that figure of the dividend which answers or 
stands over the place of units in the divisor. The quotient must 
always have so many decimal places as the dividend has more 
than the divisor. 


EXAMPLE. 


Divide 1735*5 by 6*5. 

6*5 ) 1735*5 (267 Answer . 

REDUCTION OF DECIMALS. 

To reduce a vulgar fraction to a decimal. Add ciphers to 
the numerator, and divide by the denominator ; the quotient 
will be the decimal fraction required. 





ARITHMETIC. 


119 


EXAMPLE. 

Reduce 5 , J, and f to decimals. 

Thus, l*00-r-4=*25 ; and l-0-J-2=*5 ; also 3‘00-j-4=*75. Ans. 


INTEREST 

Interest is a profit allowed by the borrower of money to the 
lender, for the loan or use of it for some determined space of 
time. The sum lent is called the principal; the interest and 
principal added together are called the amount. 

The rate of interest is usually 5 per cent, per ann. (per centum 
per annum), or £5 for every 100 for a year. 5 per cent, is the 
utmost that can be allowed by law, except under certain circum¬ 
stances, but the rate of interest may vary to any smaller sum accord¬ 
ing to agreement. Interest is of two kinds, Simple and Compound. 
Simple Interest is computed only on the sum lent, although it should 
remain unpaid for several years; Compound Interest, by accumu¬ 
lating the interest with the principal at the term when it is payable, 
and charging interest on the amount during the following period. 

The rules for Simple Interest serve also for calculating Fac¬ 
torage, Brokerage, Insurance, purchasing of Stocks, ot any thing 
else that is rated at so much per cent. 

Case I.—When the rate of interest is an even number of pounds. 

Rule .—To find the interest of any sum of money for any 
number of years, multiply the principal by the rate per cent.; 
that product divided by 100 , will give the interest for a year, 
which multiply by the number of years given, and the product 
will be the answer. 

EXAMPLE. 

What is the interest of £672 for 7 years, at 4 per cent, 
per annum ? 

£ 

672 

4 


1,00)26,88 



26 17 

7 



7 

Interest 

188 3 

1 

Principal 

672 0 

0 


Amount £860 3 1 








YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


120 

Case II.—When the rate per cent, is J, or f more than 
the pounds given in the said rate, multiply the principal by the 
pounds in the rate per cent., then take parts for or £, from 
the principal, which add to the product, and the sum divide by 
100 , as before. 


EXAMPLE. 


What is the interest of £600 for 7 years, at per cent 
per annum ? 


£ 

^ per cent.—2 ) 600 

3 


1800 

J per cent.—2 ) 300 

150 


1,00)22,50 


22 10 

h* 


Answer , £157 10 


Compound Interest, as before stated, is that which arises both 
from the principal and its interest put together. As the interest 
becomes due, but not paid, in some cases the same interest is 
allowed upon that interest unpaid, as was upon the principal, so 
that it becomes a part of the principal, and is called interest upon 
interest, or compound interest. 

It is not lawful to let out money at compound interest; yet, 
in purchasing of annuities or pensions, and leases in reversion, it 
is usual to allow compound interest to the purchaser, for his 
ready money. 

Rule .—Find the first year's interest as in simple interest. Add 
that interest to the principal, which sum will become the second 
year’s principal, and so on for any number of years. 

Subtract the given principal from the last amount, and the 
remainder will be the interest required. 








ARITHMETIC. 


121 


EXAMPLE. 

What is the compound interest of £600 for 3 years, at 6 
per cent. ? 


£ 

600 

5 


1,00)30,00 

30 

600 


Second year’s principal, 630 

5 


1,00)31,50 

31 10 

630 

Third year’s principal, 661 10 

5 


1,00)33,07 10 

33 1 6 

661 10 

Amount, 694 11 6 

Original principal, 600 0 0 

Answer , £94 11 6 


As the calculation of interest on variable amounts, and for an 
indefinite number of days, is attended by considerable loss of 
time, the use of the following tables will be found advantageous. 
It will be easily seen, that by the help of addition and multipli¬ 
cation, the interest of any sum may be found, for any number of 
days, without the labour of tedious calculations. In the first 
column is the principal, and in the upper row the number of 
days; thus the interest of any sum may be found in a line with 
the one, and underneath the other. 













INTEREST TABLE. 


122 YOUNG man’s COMPANION. 


8 days. 

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r—( I—1 I - * 

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r— < ’ ^ 

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7 days. 

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f 8OOOOOHHHnn(ni0M^HH00it3M«H!O^'-<i0 

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>> 

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>> 

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CL, 

ITJ 0Q 

^H 


























INTEREST TABLE,— (Continued) 


ARITHMETIC 



ARITHMETIC. 123 

CO 

fr 

CO 

^ , “ l j (NrH MM<NcoH< -hWhrj»oo|^ •hI^ho* wHM* ©o|h< 

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r—• r-H r-H 

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LU 








































INTEREST TABLE.—( Continued .) 


124 

YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

GO 

>> 

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i—i 1—1 

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r-H r-H r-H 

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k> 

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r-H r-H r-H 

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•—1 

























INTEREST TABLE,—( Continued.) 


ARITHMETIC 


125 


CO 

©* 

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13 


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§ 

13 

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”3 

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CO 

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nj 

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rH r-H 

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INTEREST TABLE,—( Continued .) 


126 


26 

YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 

C/3 

rC 

■+-» 

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o 

s 

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r-H r-H r-H rH rH r— i rH rH rH 

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7 months. 

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3 months. 

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ARITHMETIC. 


127 


EXCHANGE. 

Exchange teaches to compute how much money of one 
country is equivalent to a certain sum of another, at a given 
course of exchange. 

Monies of Exchange and of Account are mostly the same. 
In some places they are imaginary, as the pound sterling, for 
which there was formerly no corresponding coin; in other places 
real, as shillings and pence. 

The Course of Exchange is the quantity of the money of one 
Country, which is given for a fixed sum of the money of another ; 
the former is called the uncertain price, and the latter the certain 
price. 

The Par of Exchange is the intrinsic value of the money of 
one country, compared with that of another, both with respect to 
the weight and fineness. 

Agio is the difference between bank and current money ; it 
also means, in those places where foreign coins are current, the 
difference between the actual value of such coins, and that at 
which they have been fixed by government. 

Usance is the usual time at which bills are drawn between 
certain places, such as one, two, or three months after date; and 
double or half usances mean double or half of the usual time. If 
the usance be one month, fifteen days are allowed for half usance. 

The following rule will show when the change is favourable or 
unfavourable :— 

The lower the course of exchange runs, the more favourable it 
is to the place or people in whose money it is reckoned, and vice 
versa. 


WITH AMSTERDAM. 

There are two kinds of money in Holland, called banco and 
currency. The former generally bears a small premium called 
agio, and all bills of exchange are valued and paid in banco. 

Accounts are kept in guilders, stivers, and pennings ; and also ■ 
in pounds, shillings, and pence, Flemish. 


16 pennings = 1 stiver. (2d. Flem.) 
20 stivers = 1 guilder or Flor. 
n guilders = 1 rix dollar. 

6 guilders = 1 pound Flemish. 


128 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Also. 

8 pennings = 1 groat or Id. F. 

12 pence = 1 shilling. 

20 shillings = 1 pound. 

Exchange with London, at so many guilders nr florins, or 
shillings and pence, Flemish, for £\ sterling. Par 36s. 1 d. Flem. 
per pound sterling. 

To reduce banco into currency, and the contrary, say, 

As 100 : 100 with the agio added : : banco : currency, 

And 100 with the agio added : 100 : : currency : banco. 

EXAMPLE. 

Reduce 1625 guilders banco into currency; agio at 3| per cent. 

ban. cur. ban. 

100 : 103i :: 1625 

103J 

1677.8125 


Or, 1677 guild. 16 stiv. 4 penn. cur. 

< Reverse statement for proof. 

1031 : 100 : : 1677.8125 

413 400 400 

413)671125.00000 

1625 guilders banco. 

WITH HAMBURGH. 

Money in Hamburgh is distinguished, as at Amsterdam, into 
banco and currency. The banco here bears a considerable 
premium, the agio being from 18 to 25 per cent.; and all the 
bills of exchange are valued and paid in this money. 

WITH PARIS. 

Accounts in France are kept in livres, sous, and deniers ; and 
also in francs and cents. 

12 deniers = 1 sou or Sul. 

20 sous = 1 livre tournois. 

3 livres = 1 ecu. 








ARITHMETIC. 


m 


Also, 

10 centimes = 1 decime. 

10 decimes, or 100 cents = 1 franc. 

80 francs =81 livres. 

1 lius the franc, or new Hvre, is equal to 243 deniers ; being 
per cent, better than the old livre tournois, which is 240 
deniers. 

Paris exchanges with London, by giving a variable number of 
francs and centimes for the pound sterling. Par, 25 francs per 
pound sterling. 

To reduce francs, &c. into livres, &c. say, 

As 80 : 81 : : francs : livres. Or, add A 

oO 


EXAMPLE. 

Reduce 3262 francs 50 centimes into livres. 
Add A 3262-5 

40-78125 

Livres 3303*28125 


Proof. 

3303-28125 

80 


81 ) 264262-5 

Francs 3262*50 centimes. 


WITH LISBOX. 

In Portugal, accounts are generally kept m milrees and rees, 
and they are distinguished by a mark set between them. 

400 rees = 1 crusado. | 4800 rees = 1 moidore. 

1000 rees = 1 milree | 6400 rees = 1 joannes. 

Exchange with London at a variable number of pence of 1 milree. 
Par 67J sterling per milree. 

Note .—As rees are thousandth parts of a milree, the computa 
tions are best performed by decimals. 








ISO 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


EXAMPLE. 


Reduce 1360 milrees 125 rees into sterling; exchange 64J. 
per milree. 


60 


, * ) 1360*125 


340-03125 

22-66875 


362-7 = £362 14s. 


WITH DUBLIN. 

Accounts in Ireland are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence, as 
in England. The par of an English shilling is Is. 1 d. Irish ; 
and therefore £100 English is equal to ^108 6s. 8d. Irish; but 
in the course of exchange varies from 6 to 20 per cent. Par, 8J. 



£ 

s. 

d. 

A shilling 

sterling = 0 

1 

1 Irish. 

A pound 

» = 1 

1 

8 ,, 

A guinea 

„ = 1 

2 

9 „ 


Note .—To reduce British sterling into Irish at par, add ~ 2 ; and 

to reduce Irish at par into British, deduct 4 from the Irish. 

\ 

WITH AMERICA. 

\ * i 

Accounts are kept in dollars and cents, and America exchanges 
with London at par, or at so much per cent, either above or 
below par. 

100 cents = 1 dollar. Par, 4s. 6d. sterling. 

40 dollars = 9 pounds sterling. 

CURRENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES, 

( With rules for reducing them, into Sterling.) 

In New England and Virginia, the dollar is worth 6s. 
currency; therefore, 

* 

£133 6s. Sd. currency = £100 sterling. 






ARITHMETIC. 


131 


To reduce this currency into sterling, deduct 5. 
in New York and North Carolina, a dollar is worth 8s. 
currency ; therefore, 

£179 | currency = £100 sterling. 

To reduce this currency into sterling, multiply by 9, and 
divide by 16: or, take f, and add § of that half. 


WITH THE WEST INDIES. 

Accounts are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence, currency. 
£110 currency = £100 sterling 

A hard or Spanish dollar is valued at 6s. 8d. currency. Bills 
and dollars generally bear a premium. 


EXTRACTING OF ROOTS. 

The root is a number whose continual multiplication into itself 
produces the power; and is denominated the square, cube, 4th, 
5th, root, &c. according as it is, when raised to the 2d, 3d, 4th, 
5th, &c. power, equal to that power. Thus 2 is the square root 
of 4, because 2 x 2=4; and 4 is the cube root of 64, 
because 4 x 4 X 4 = 64 ; and so on. 

Although there is no number of which we cannot find anv 
power exactly, yet there may be many numbers of which a precise 
root can never be determined. But by the help of decimals, we 
can approximate towards the root to any assigned degree of ex¬ 
actness. The roots which approximate are called surd roots, and 
those which are perfectly accurate are called rational roots. 

Roots are sometimes denoted, as in algebra, by writing the 
character before the power, with the index of the root against it; 

thus, the third root of 70 is expressed V70, and the second root 
of it is \/ 70, the index 2 being always omitted when the square 
or second root is designed. 

If the power be expressed by several numbers with the sign 
+ or — between them, a line is drawn from the top of the sign 

over all the parts of it; thus, the third root 28—13 is V28— 13. 
Sometimes roots are designated like powers, with fractional indices ; 

thus, the third root of 5 is 5®, the third root of 19 is 19% and 
the fourth root of 40 — 12 is 40 — 12% &c. 




132 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


EXTRACTION OF THE SQUARE ROOT. 


Extracting the square root is finding out such a number, as, 
being multiplied into itself, the product will be equal to the given 
number. 

\ 

As the square root of 81 is 9, consequently, 9 X 9 = 81 the 
given number, as in the following table. 


Root . 
Square. 


1 I 2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

*-r 

/ 

8 

1 9 

1 | 4 | 

9 

16 

25 | 

36 

49 

64 

81 


Rule. —1. Point the given number or resol vend into periods of 
two figures each, beginning at the unit’s place. 

2. Find by the table the greatest square number that is con¬ 
tained in the first period towards the left hand, placing the square 
number under the first period, and the root of it in the quotient, 
(as in division ;) subtract that square out of the said period, and 
to the remainder bring down the next period for a dividend. 

3. Double the quotient or root, and place it for a divisor; seek 
how often the divisor is contained in the dividend (reserving 
always the unit's place), and put the answer in the quotient, and 
also on the right hand of the divisor. Then multiply the divisor 
by the last figure put in the quotient (as in common division) ; the 
product subtract from the dividend, and to the remainder bring 
down the next period, which proceed with as before. 


Note .—But if it happen that the given resolvend is not a perfect 
square, cube, &c. then something will remain after extraction has 
been made throughout all the points. When this is the case, you 
must annex ciphers, according as the proposed power requires, 
namely, by pairs or twos in the square ; threes in the cube, &c. ; 
and the operation is continued as before. If the given resolvend 
consists of a whole number and decimals together, make the 
number of decimals even by adding ciphers to them. 


EXAMPLE. 

It is required to extract the square root of 74770609. 

74770609 ( 8647 the root. 

64 


166) 1077 

996 = 166 x 6 


1724)8106 

6896 = 1724 x 4 


17287) 121009 

121009 = 17287 X 7 


Proof thus , 8647 x 8647 = 74770609. 



















ARITHMETIC. 


133 


USE OF THE SQUARE ROOT. 

To find the side of a square equal in area to any given 
superficies. Extract the square root of the given superficies; 
which root will be the side of the square sought. 

EXAMPLE. 

If the area of a given circle is 4276*5, what is the side of a 
square whose superficial content shall be equal to it P 

Ihus, y/ 4276*5 = 65*4 nearly . 

EXTRACTION OF THE CUBE ROOT. 

To extract the cube root is to find out a number, which being 
multiplied into itself, and then again into the product, produces 
the given number. 

Table. 


Root . 

1 

2 | 3 

4 5 

6 

7 

8 | 9 

Cube. 

1 

00 

to 

-1 

64 | 125 

216 

343 

512 | 729 


As the cube root of 729 is 9, consequently 9x9x9 = 729, 
the given number; and so of others, as in the above table. 

Rule. — Make a point over every third figure given, beginning 
at the unit's place; seek the greatest cube to the first point on the 
left hand, (by the table,) whose root place in the quotient; then 
subtract its cube from the period, and to the remainder (if any,) 
bring down the three figures, or your next period, and call it your 
dividend. 

Find a divisor, by calling your quotient figure, with a cipher 
joined to it, r ; then three times the square of r will be your 
divisor; seek how often it is contained in the dividend, and put 
the answer in the quotient as in division ; only with this difference, 
call the said quotient figure last put up 0 , and multiply your 
divisor by it, and place the product underneath the dividend ; then 
multiply the square of e by three times r, and place it under the 
dividend.; lastly, cube the figure you call e, and place it under 
the dividend: then add the three products together, and it gives 
the subtrahend ; which subtract from your last dividend, and to the 
remainder bring down the next period, and proceed as before. 













rOUN-G man’s companion. 


134 

EXAMPLE. 

What is the cube root of 21024576 ? 

21024576 ) 276 the root, 
8 


Sir = 1200 ) 13024 

8400 — 3 ree~\ 

2940 = Sree Here r = 20, and c = V. 
343 = eee ) 

11683 Subtrahend. 


3rr=218700 ) 1341576 Dividend. 

1312200 = Sree) 

29160 = Sree > Here r = 270, and e = G. 

21 6 = eee J 

1341576 Subtrahend. 


USE OF THE CUBE ROOT. 

To find the side of a cube that shall be equal in solidity to any 
given solid, as a globe, cylinder, prism, cone, &c. Extract the 
cube root of the solid content of the given body, which root will 
be the side of the cube required. 

EXAMPLE. 

Suppose a stone of a cubic form, which contains 219 solid feet; 
what is the superficial content of one of its sides ? 

First, y' 21952 = 28, side of the cube. 

Then, 28 X 28 = 784, the content required. 


Section III. —Mensuration. 

Mensuration is sometimes considered as belonging to geo¬ 
metry, and with some propriety, as all its rules are founded on 
geometrical principles. As it would, however, exceed the limits 
of this work to enter fully into the subject in this point of view, 
we shall chiefly consider it in a practical manner, in its relation to 
arithmetic, to which it also properly belongs; though it will be 
needful, in order to understand the grounds of its operations, 
previously to lay down the first principles of geometry. 










ARITHMETIC. 


135 


Geometry was originally no more than the art of measuring 
the earth ; but at present it denotes the science of magnitude in 
general. Herodotus and Proclus ascribe the invention of geo¬ 
metry to the Egyptians, and assert that the annual inundations 
of the Nile gave occasion to it; for those waters bearing away the 
bounds and landmarks of estates and farms', covering the face of 
the ground uniformly with mud, the people, say they, were 
obliged every year to distinguish and lay out their lands by the 
consideration of their figure and quantity ; and thus by experience 
and habit they formed a method, or art, which was the origin of 
geometry. 

Geometry is distinguished into theoretical or speculative, and 
practical. 

Theoretical or speculative geometry treats of the various pro¬ 
perties and relations of magnitudes, demonstrating the theorems, 
&e.; and practical geometry is that which applies those specula¬ 
tions and theorems to particular uses in the solution of problems, 
and to the measurements in the ordinary concerns of life. 

The usefulness of geometry extends to almost every art and 
science. By its help, astronomers turn their observations to ad¬ 
vantage, regulate the duration of times, seasons, years, cycles, and 
epochas ; and measure the distance, motions, and magnitudes of 
the heavenly bodies. By it geographers determine the figure and 
magnitude of the earth, and delineate the extent and bearings 
of kingdoms, provinces, harbours, &c. It is from this science, too, 
that architects derive their just measures in the construction of 
edifices. It is by the assistance of geometry that engineers con¬ 
duct all their works, take the situation and plans of towns, tlie 
distances of places, and the measure of such things as are only 
accessible to the sight. It is not only an introduction to forti¬ 
fication, but also highly necessary to most mechanical arts, as car¬ 
pentry, joinery, &c. 


GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS. 

1. A point is that which has no parts or magnitude. 

2 . A line is length conceived without breadth. 

3. A right line is the shortest that can be drawn between two 
given points, it being what is commonly called a straight line. 

A curve or curved line is any other than a right line, from which 
it differs by inflection, either regular or irregular. 

4. A superficies, or surface, is considered as an extension of 
length and breadth, without depth. 


136 


\ 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


5 . A plane superficies is a flat surface, which will coincide, in 
every point, with a right line. 

6 . A plane figure, scheme, or diagram, is the lineal representa¬ 
tion of any object on a plane surface. If the lines forming the 
figure be straight, the figure is said to be rectilineal, being com¬ 
posed of right lines. 

7. An angle is the space or corner between two lines meeting in 
a point. It is expressed by three letters, as A B C ; and the 
middle letter, as B, always denotes the vertex or angular point. 

8 . Converging lines are right lines so inclined to each other as 
to meet, if continued or produced to a certain point. 

9. Right and oblique angles. If one right line stands upon 
another, so as to make the angles on each side equal, each angle is 
called a right angle, and the line which stands upon the base, or 
lower line, is called a perpendicular. 

10. An acute angle is less than a right angle. 

11. An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle. 

12 . A plane triangle is a space inclosed by three right lines. 

13. A right angled triangle is that which has one right angle. 

14. An acute angled triangle is a triangle which has all its 
angles acute. 


15. An obtuse angled triangle is a triangle having one obtuse 
angle. 

16. An equilateral triangle is a triangle having all its sides equal. 

17. An isosceles triangle is a triangle having two equal sides. 

18. A scalene triangle is a triangle having no two of its sides 
equal. 

19. Parallel lines are lines equally dis- ^ ^ 

tant from each other in all parts, and which, 

though produced or continued ever so far, ^ 
could never meet. 

20. A parallelogram is a figure of which the opposite sides are 
parallels. 

21. When the parallelogram has a right angle, it is called a 
rectangle. 


22 . If the sides of the rectangle be equal, it is called a square. 

23. If the two adjacent sides be unequal, the rectangle is termed 
an oblong. 


24. If only two opposite angles of a parallelogram be equal, 
the figure is called a rhombus. 


25. If two adjacent sides of a rhombus be equal, the figure is 
called a rhomboid. 

26. Every figure, inclosed by four right lines, is called a quad¬ 
rangle, or quadrilateral. 




ARITHMETIC. 


ft 


\ 


137 


27. When all the sides of a quadrilateral are unequal, it is 
called a trapezium. 

28. If two sides of a trapezium be parallel, it is called a 
trapezoid. 

29. Figures having equal sides and equal angles, or equilateral 
and equiangular figures, formed by more than four right lines, are 
called regular polygons. 

30. A regular polygon of five sides is called a pentagon. 

31. A regular polygon of six sides is called a hexagon. 

32. A regular polygon of seven sides is called a heptagon. 

33. A regular polygon of eight sides is called an octagon ; of 
nine sides, an eneagon or nonagon ; of ten sides, a decagon; of 
eleven sides, a undecagon; of twelve sides, a duodecagon ; of 
fifteen sides, a quindecagon : but polygons having more than twelve 
sides are commonly expressed as such, with the numbers of sides. 

34. A circle is a plane figure formed by one uniform curved 
line only, which is called its circumference. 

35. The centre of a circle is the point in the middle of it; and 
a line drawn from the centre to the circumference, is the radius of 
the circle : all lines, (radii,) thus drawn, are equal. 

36. The diameter of a circle is a right line drawn through the 
centre, and terminated on both sides by the circumference. 

37. A chord of a circle is a right line drawn from one point of 
a circle to another, and dividing it into unequal or equal parts, or 
segments. In the latter case, the chord is also the diameter. 

38. A semicircle is one-half of a circle, as divided into two 
equal parts by the diameter. 

39. A segment of a circle is that portion which is cut olf by 
the chord. 

40. A sector is the portion of a circle formed by two radii 
and the intercepted part of the circumference. 

41. A quadrant is the fourth part or quarter of a circle; or, in 
other words, a sector contained by two radii, forming a right 
angle at the centre, and intercepted part of the circumference. 

42. An arc or arch is any portion of the circumference of a circle. 

43. The altitude of a figure is a right line drawn from the top 
or vertical angle perpendicular to the base or opposite side, or to 
the base produced or continued. 

44. A solid is that which has length, breadth, and thickness. 

45. A cube is a solid bounded by six equal squares. 

46. A prism is a solid whose sides are parallelograms, and 
whose two ends are parallel to each other. 

47. A cylinder is a round solid, like the rolling stone of a 
bowling-green, whose two ends are equal and parallel circles. 

T 


* 


138 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


48. A pyramid is a solid, whose base is a polygon, or right- 
lined figure, and whose sides, or triangles, meet in a point, called 
the vertex. 

49. A cone is a round pyramid, or pyramid having a circular 
base, in form like a sugar-loaf. 

50. A frustrum of a pyramid or cone is that part which 
remains, when any part next the vertex is cut off by a plane 
parallel to the base. 

51. A pavilion is a solid contained under five planes; the base 
is a rectangle or oblong, and the four sides terminate in a ridge, 
parallel to a side of the base, but unequal to it. 

52. A prismoid is a solid contained under six planes : the bases 
or ends are parallel rectangles, and the four sides are quadrangles. 

53. A sphere is a solid bounded by a convex surface, every 
point of which is equally distant from a point within, called the 
centre. 

54. A spheroid is a solid resembling an egg, and is the body 
conceived to be generated by the revolution of an ellipse about 
its axis, and is denominated either prolate (oblong) or oblate, 
according as the revolution is made about the transverse axis or 
its conjugate. The axis about which the revolution is made is 
the fixed axis, the other is the revolving axis. 

Having thus laid down some of the leading geometrical prin¬ 
ciples, we now proceed to the application of them arithmetically 
to the mensuration of bodies. 

Mensuration, as applied to practical purposes, is of three kinds— 
lineal, or as it is often called, running measure; superficial, or 
square measure; and solid, or cubic measure: the first respects 
length only; the second, length and breadth; and the third, 
length, breadth, and depth or thickness. The former only 
requires the application of the rules already laid down in a former 
part of this chapter. See Weights and Measures. We 
proceed to some rules for the two latter. 

SUPERFICIAL MEASURE. 

Case I.—To multiply feet, inches, and parts, by feet, inches, 
and parts. This method is termed cross multiplication, but more 
properly duodecimals. 

Rule. —Set the feet in the multiplier under the least deno¬ 
mination in the multiplicand, and the rest in order, beginning 
with the least denomination; divide each product by 12, as you 
go on; place the first remainder under the multiplying figure, 


ARITHMETIC. 


139 


and the rest in order, adding each quotient to the next arising 
product; and having finished the multiplication, the sum of all 
will be the product required. 


EXAMPLE. 

Multiply 47 feet 8 inches, by 8 feet 4 inches. 

feet , „ 

Multiply 47 8 0 

by 8 4 


15 

10 

8 

381 

4 

O 

Answer , 397 

2 

8 


Case II.—To find the area of a parallelogram, whether it be 
a square, a rectangle, a rhombus, or a rhomboides. Multiply the 
length by the height or perpendicular breadth, and the product 
will be the area. 

If the area of a piece of ground, in yards, be divided by 4840 

(the number of square yards in one acre) the quotient will give 

the number of acres in the said piece; or, if the area in links be 

divided by 100,000 (the number of square links in one acre) the 

quotient will give acres. 

«« 

EXAMPLE. 

What is the area in acres of a parallelogram, whose length is 
14*5 chains, and its breadth 9'75 chains? 

Here, E F — 14-5, and EC— 9*75 chains. 

Then, 14-5 x 9*75 = 141*375 = 141a. 1 r. 20 p. the area required. 

Case III.—To find the area of a triangle.—1. Multiply one 
of its sides by the perpendicular let fall upon it from its opposite 
angle, and half the product will be the area. 2. Multiply the base 
by half the perpendicular, or the perpendicular by half the base, 
and the product gives the area. 

EXAMPLE 


How many acres are in a triangular field, whose base is 28, and 
perpendicular 20*5 chains ? 

Here, A C == 28, and B 1) = 20*5 chains. 


Then, 


28 x 20*5 


= 14 x 20*5 = 287 acres, Answer . 


2 







140 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


Case IV.—To find tlie area of any regular polygon. Let fall a 
perpendicular from the centre of the figure to one of its sides: 
then multiply together the perpendicular, the side of the figure, 
and the number of its sides; and half the product will be the 
area. 


EXAMPLE. 

What is the area of a regular pentagon, whose sides are 48 
feet, and which measures from the centre to the middle of one of 
its sides 41*57 feet ? 

Here, A B — 48, C II — 41*57, and n — 5. 

Then, 48 x 41 57 X 5 9976 ^ __ 4988*4 feet, the area required. 

2 2 


Case V.—To find the diameter and circumference of a circle, 
die one from the other. Multiply the diameter by 3*1416, and 
the product will be the circumference. And therefore divide the 
circumference by 3*1416, and the quotient will be the diameter. 


EXAMPLE. 

If the diameter of a circle be 7, what is the circumference ? 

Thus, 3*1416 X 7 = 21*9912, or rather 22, the circumference 

required. 


Case VI.—To find the area of a circle, multiply half the 
circumference by half the diameter, and the product will be the 
area. 


EXAMPLE. 

How many square feet are in a circle, whose circumference is 
6*2832 P 


(7=6*2832, D = — 2, the diameter. 

o*!41o 

rp, 6*2832 2 6*2832 . * „ 4l 

Then,—-— X - =—-— = 3*1416, the area. 


2 







ARITHMETIC. 


141 


SOLID MEASURE. 

Case I.—To find the solidity of a cube, prism, or right 
cylinder. Multiply the area of the base into the height of altitude, 
and the product will be the solidity. 

EXAMPLE. 

What is the solid content of a cube, whose side is 2^ feet ? 

Thus, 2*5 X 2*5 x 2 *5 = 15*623 feet, the solidity. 

Case II.—To find the surface of a sphere or globe, or of any 
segment or zone of it. Multiply the circumference of the sphere 
into the diameter or height of the part required; and the product 
will be the curve surface, whether it be segment, zone, hemisphere, 
or the whole sphere. 

The height of the whole sphere is its diameter. 

EXAMPLE. 

What is the surface of a globe, whose diameter is 7 ? 

First, (by Case V.) 3*1416 x 7 = 2T9912, the circumference. 

Then, 2T9912 x 7 = 153*9384, the surface required. 

Case III.—To find the solidity or content of a sphere or 
globe, find the superficies by the last problem ; multiply the 
superficies by J of the radius, or by £ of the diameter; or multiply 
the cube of the diameter by *5236, and the product will be the 
solidity. 

EXAMPLE. 

What is the content of a globe, whose diameter is 7 ? 

Thus, 7 x 7 X 7 x *5236 = 179*5948, the solidity required. 


ARTIFICERS’ WORK. 

GLAZIERS’ WORK. 

Glaziers’ work is usually measured by the foot 
If the windows be square, multiply the length by the breadth, 
which will produce the content. 


142 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


EXAMPLE. 


feet in. 

8 9 high 

7 3 broad 


56 

0 

2 

0 

5 

3 


2 i 

63 

H 


3 inches 


1 

4 


feet 

in. 

8 

9 


7 feet 3 inches. 

61 

3 

2 

Ql 

63 

o 4 


If the windows be arched, or have a curved form, no allowance 
is made in charging, although they are actually less in measure, 
by reason of the extraordinary trouble and waste of time, expense, 
or waste of glass, &c.; and the dimensions taken from the highest 
part of the arch, down to the bottom of the window, form the 
height or length; which multiply by the breadth, and the product 
will be the answer in feet, &c. 

PAINTERS’ WORK. 

Painters’* work is usually measured by the yard. 

When the wainscot of. a room is painted, the room must be 
measured with a line, and the height taken by girting a string 
over all the mouldings from the top of the cornice to the floor: 
then multiply the compass by the height, and you have the 
content in feet and inches; which may be reduced into square 
yards by dividing by 9. 


EXAMPLE. 

f 

How many square yards are there in the painting of a room 
which is 45 feet 8 inches in compass, and 10 feet 6 inches high? 


feet 

in. 

45 

8 in compass. 

10 

6 high. 

456 

8 

22 

10 

9)479 

6 

Yards 53 

2 6 Answer . 













ARITHMETIC. 


1 4t 

f 

JOINERS’ WORK. 

In wainscoting, the dimensions are taken as in painting, that is 
by measuring the height and the compass; which multiply om 
into the other, dividing the product by nine, and the quotient n 
the answer in square yards. 

EXAMTLE. 

What is the content of a piece of wainscoting that is 9 feet 
3 inches long, and 6 feet 6 inches broad ? 

feet in. 

6 inches is |—2 ) 9 3 

6 feet 6 inches. 

55 6 

_ 4 7 i 

9)60 lj 

6 yds. f Answer. 

CARPENTERS’ WORK. 

Koofing, flooring, and partitioning, by the principal carpenters, 
in modern buildings, are measured by the square of 10 feet each 
way, that is, 100 square feet. 

For roofing, multiply the depth and half depth by the front, 
or the front and half front by the depth, and you will have the 
content. 

The dimensions are taken in feet and inches. 

EXAMPLE. 

How many squares does a piece of work contain that measures 
199 feet 10 inches in length, and 10 feet 7 inches in height ? 

feet in. 

199 10 long. 

10 feet 7 inches high. 



1998 

4 

6 inches a 

99 

11 

1 inch 1 

6 

16 



21 14 

w\ 


Answer , 21 squares, 14 feet, 10^ inches. 

The division is performed by pointing off two places 
towards the right hand ; and the number on the left is the 
squares, &c. 











f 



144 VOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 

SAWYERS' WORK. 

Sawyers' work is measured by tlie superficial foot, and paid for 
by the hundred, that is, 100 feet; the depth of the kerf is 
reckoned for the breadth, and the length for the length. The 
dimensions being taken in feet, the content of feet one kerf 
superficial may be found by multiplying the length by the 
breadth; and then having found the number of feet in one kerf, 
multiply it by the number of kerfs of the same dimensions, and 
you will have the number of feet in them all. 

BRICKLAYERS’, TILERS’, AND SLATERS’ WORK. 

Walling is measured by the rod statute-measure, being 
feet superficial. The method of taking the dimensions is this :—* 
Measure the length by a line going over the buttresses; and 
for the height, measure over the mouldings, pressing the line 
into them even to the middle of the coping. The thickness of the 
wall is calculated by the number of half bricks in length the wall 
is in thickness ; for three half bricks, that is, a brick in length 
and one in breadth, is the standard thickness: and all walls, 
whether less or more,’•must be reduced to that thickness, by the 
mle following: 

Multiply the product of the length and height by the number 
of half bricks that the wall is in thickness ; which product divide 
by 3, and then the quotient by 27% (the | being generally neg¬ 
lected in common working) ; and the quotient will be rods, at a 
brick and a half thick, standard measure. 

EXAMPLE. 

Admit the face of a wall to measure 4085 feet, and the thickness 
to be two bricks and a half, or five half bricks, how many rods 
does it contain ? 

feet . 

4085 

5 

3)20425 

27^)6808 (25 rods, Answer, 

544 

1368 

1360 

8 





ARITHMETIC. 


145 

Tylers'* and Slaters 1 work is valued by the square of 100 feet; 
in some places by the rod of 18 feet square ; that is, 36 square 
yards, or 324 feet. 

Masons 1 work, consisting of stone, is of two sorts, namely, 
superficial and solid. Pavements, and the face of stone walls, 
houses, &c. are measured as brick-work. If the work have 
ornaments, as capitals, pilasters, rails, balusters, &c. then they 
are valued by the piece. 

LAND MEASURE. 

Land is usually measured by the acre. The dimensions are 
taken with a chain of four poles in length, which is divided into 
a hundred parts, called links; and ten square chains make an acre. 
But to find the content (if not regularly square) it is generally 
divided into triangles : thus, a piece of land of 4 sides (if not 
square) may be divided into two triangles; pieces of 5 sides into 
3, &c.; but if square, it is measured as a regular parallelogram. 
See Case II. 

All other pieces of land must be divided into triangles, each of 
which must be measured and their contents added together. See 
Case III. Superficial Measure. 

TIMBER MEASURE. 

To find the solid content of a tree, it must first be girted, and 
one-fourth part taken for the side of the square ; then multiply the 
length of the side of the square in inches into itself, and that 
product by the length in feet; which last product divide by 144: 
but if you multiply by the length in inches, then the divisor must 
be 1728, and if any thing remain, divide such remainder by 12, 
and the quotient will be the odd inches. 

EXAMPLE. 

Suppose a piece of timber 15 feet long, and a quarter of the 
girt 42 inches ; what is the content of that piece P 

in. in. feet. 

42 x 42 = 1764 x 15 = 26460 -r- 144 as 183 feet, 9 in. Answer. 

GAUGING. 

There is some sort of affinity between measuring timber and 
gauging or measuring liquors. Tn both cases the number of solid 

u 


146 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


or cubic inches is first found, and in gauging, the number of 
gallons is afterwards found by dividing by 282 if beer or ale, and 
by 281 if wine measure. 

To gauge a copper, tub, or cask, if it be wider at the top than 
the bottom, take the diameter somewhat above the middle ; or if 
it be unequal, find the mean diameter of the bung and the head; 
then square the mean diameter, and multiply that square by .78o4, 
and the product will give the content at one inch deep; which, 
multiplied by the length, will give the number of solid inches. 

EXAMPLE. 

What is the content of a cask whose mean diameter is 72 
inches, and its length 56 inches. 

i 

72 x 72 — 5184 x .7854 = 4071*5136 x 56 = 228004*7616 
-f- 282 = 8O82 gallons, Answer. 


Section IV.— Algebra, 

This term is taken from the Arabic language, and signifies in 
general the art of comparing and equalizing quantities, and of 
resolving questions in arithmetic, where these operations are re¬ 
quired, by means of general signs and characters. Algebra is 
applied to the resolution of all kinds of problems wherein quan¬ 
tity is concerned ; for which purpose, it does not require that 
rules should be previously laid down, but teaches how to discover 
or invent them, and that by the force of reasoning, from a bare 
contemplation of the conditions and relations of the quantities, as 
expressed in the problem under consideration. Algebra likewise 
shows how to demonstrate or prove the rules, theorems, and con¬ 
clusions, thus investigated. 

Soon after the invention of this art, numbers and things were 
expressed by their names at full length ; but afterwards these were 
abridged, and the initials of the words used instead of them ; and, 
as the art advanced farther, the letters of the alphabet came to be 
employed as general representations of all kinds of quantities ; and 
other marks were gradually introduced to express the operations 
and combinations, so as to entitle it to different appellations. It 
is highly probable that the Indians or Arabians first invented this 
noble art, for it may be reasonably supposed that the ancient 
Greeks were ignorant of it, since Pappus, in his mathematical 
collections, in which he enumerates their analysis, makes mention 


ARITHMETIC. 


147 


of nothing like it; and he besides speaks of a local problem, 
begun by Euclid, and continued by Apollonius, which none of 
them could fully resolve, a circumstance that could not have 
occurred had they been acquainted with algebra. 

Diophantus was the first Greek writer on algebra; lie published 
thirteen books about the year 800, though only six of them were 
translated into Latin in the year 1575. This algebra of Diophan¬ 
tus only extends to the solution of arithmetical indeterminate 
problems. Before this translation of Diophantus came out, Lucas 
de Burgo, a friar, published at Venice, in the year 1494, an 
Italian treatise on algebra. This author refers to others who had 
preceded him, and from whom he had learned the art; but their 
writings have not come down to us. He also assumes, that 
algebra came originally from the Arabs, and never mentions Dio¬ 
phantus, which makes it highly probable that his work was not 
even then known in Europe. Burgo’s treatise goes no farther 
than quadratic equations. He was succeeded by Stifelius, who 
was a good author, but did not advance the science. After him 
came Scipio Ferreus, Cardan, Tartagilla, and some others, who 
proceeded to the solution of cubic equations. 

In 1590, Vieta introduced his specious arithmetic, which con¬ 
sists in denoting the quantities, both known and unknown, by 
symbols or letters. To Vieta we are indebted for the method of 
extracting the roots of equations by approximations, which has 
been since greatly improved by Raphson, Halley, Maclaurin, 
Simpson, and others. 

The elements of the art were compiled and published by Kersey, 
in 1671, in which specious arithmetic, and the nature of equa¬ 
tions are largely explained, and illustrated by a variety of examples. 
Sir Isaac Newton’s “Arithmetica Universalis” was published in 
1707, which abounds with useful and important instruction ; and 
since his time we have had a great number of excellent treatises 
on the subject, from almost any of which the science may with 
very little difficulty be learned. Algebra is called an universal 
arithmetic, and it proceeds by operations and rules similar to those 
in common arithmetic, founded upon the same principles. But 
as a number of symbols are admitted into this science, being 
necessary for giving it that extent and generality which is its 
greatest excellence; the import of these symbols is to be clearly 
stated, that no obscurity or error may arise from the frequent use 
and complication of them. Thus,— 

The relation of equality is expressed by the sign, — ; thus, to 
express that the quantity represented by a is equal to that which 
is represented by b , we write a = b. But if we w r ould express 


148 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


that a is greater than b , we write a b ; and if we would express 
algebraically that a is less than b , we write a <3 b. 

Quantity is what is made up of parts, or is capable of being 
greater or less. It is increased by addition, and diminished by 
subtraction; which are therefore the two primary operations that 
relate to quantity. Hence it is, that any quantity may be sup¬ 
posed to enter into algebraic computations two different ways, 
which have contrary effects ; either as an increment, or as a decre¬ 
ment ; that is, as a quantity to be added, or as a quantity to be 
subtracted. The sign + (plus) is the mark of addition, and the 
sign — (minus) of subtraction. Thus, the quantity being repre- 
by «, or + <z, imports that a is to be added, or represents an in¬ 
crement ; but — a imports that a is to be subtracted, and 
represents a decrement. When several such quantities are joined, 
the signs serve to show which are to be added, and which are to 
be subtracted. Thus, -f a + b denotes the quantity that arises 
when a and b are both considered as increments, and therefore 
expresses the sum of a and b. But + a — b denotes the quan¬ 
tity that arises, when from the quantity «, the quantity b is sub¬ 
tracted ; and expresses the excess of a above b. When a is 
greater than b , then a — b is itself an increment; when a — b , 
then a — b = o ; and when a is less than 6, then a — b is itself 
a decrement. 

As addition and subtraction are opposite, or an increment is 
opposite to a decrement, there is an analogous opposition between 
the affections of quantities that are considered in the mathematical 
sciences. As between excess and defect; between the value of 
effects or money due to a man, and money due by him ; a line 
drawn towards the right, and a line drawn to the left; gravity and 
levity; elevation above the horizon, and depression below it. 
When two quantities equal in respect of magnitude, but of those 
opposite kinds, are joined together, and conceived to take place 
in the same subject, they destroy each other’s effect, and their 
amount is nothing. Thus £100 due to a man, and £100 due by 
him, balance each other ; and in estimating his stock may be both 
neglected. 

A quantity that is to be added is likewise called a positive 
quantity; and a quantity to be subtracted is said to be negative : 
they are equally real, but opposite to each other, so as to take 
away each other’s effect, in any operation, when they are equal as 
to quantity. Thus, 3 — 3 = 0, and a — a — 0. But though 
+ a and — a are equal as to quantity, we do not suppose in 
algebra that 4- a = — a ; because, to infer equality in this 
science, they must not only be equal as to quantity, but of the 


ARITHMETIC. 



same quality, that ill every operation the one may have the same 
effect as the other. A decrement may be equal to an increment; 
but it has in all operations a contrary effect. It is on account of 
this contrariety, that a negative quantity is said to be less than 
nothing, because it is opposite to the positive, and diminishes it 
when joined to it, whereas the addition of 0 has no effect. But 
a negative is to be considered no less as a real quantity than the 
positive. Quantities that have no sign prefixed to them are un¬ 
derstood to be positive. 

The number prefixed to a letter is called the number coeffi¬ 
cient, and shows how often the quantity represented by the letter 
is to be taken. Thus, 2 a imports that the quantity represented 
by a is to be taken twice ; 3a, that it is to be taken thrice, and 
so on. When no number is prefixed, unit is understood to be 
the coefficient. Thus, 1 is the coefficient of a or of b. Quan¬ 
tities are said 'to be like or similar, that are represented by the 
same letter, or letters equally repeated. Thus, 4 3a, and — 5 a 
are like ; but a and b , or a and aa are unlike. A quantity is 
said to consist of as many terms as there are parts joined by the 
signs 4 or — ; thus, a 4 b consists of two terms, and is called 
a binomial; a 4 b 4 c consists of three terms, and is called a 
trinomial. These are called compound quantities : a simple 
quantity consists of one term only, as, 4 a, or + ab, or 4 abc. 


ADDITION. 

Addition isi algebra is performed in several ways. 

Case I.—When the questions are like and have similar signs. 
Rule .—Add together the coefficient, (counting a quantity 
having no coefficient as one ,) and annex the common letter or 
letters, prefixing the common sign. 

EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

No. 2. 

4- 5 m 

— 96 x z 

4- 3 in 

— 7 xz 

*t- m 

— xz 

4 9 m 

— 32 xz 

4 8 m 

— 18 xz 

4 26 rn 

-—154- xz 








YOUNG MAN S COMPANION 


150 

Case II.—When the quantities are like, but the signs unlike . 

Rule .—Add all the positive quantities together, and all the 
negative quantities ; and the difference between these sums is the 
amount of the whole, having the sign belonging to the greatest 
sum. 


EXAMPLES. 

No. 1 . No. 2. 


+ 

8 

a 


+ 

9 

n 

— 

8 

— 

2 

a 


— 

6 

n 

+ 

2 

•— 

7 

a 


+ 

24 

n 

— 

5 

+ 

9 

a 


— 

4 

n 

+ 

13 

+ 

17 

a 

sum of + 

4- 

33 

n 

+ 

15 

— 

9 

a 

sum of — 

— 

10 

n 

— 

13 

+ 

8 

a 

total 

+ 

23 

n 

+' 

2 


EXPLANATION 

To understand these examples, we may take the positive 
quantities as representing the several articles of a person’s 
effects, and the negative quantities as his debts : in this case, 
it is evident that, to know the true state of his affairs, we must 
deduct the debts from the effects, and the remainder will be 
his real property, equal to the complex amount of all the posi¬ 
tive and negative quantities taken together. Thus, in the first 
example we have -f 8a and + 9 a, amounting to -f- 17a for 
the effects, — c 2 a, and — 7 amounting to — 9 a for the 
debts ; which last sum, taken from the former, will leave 8a 
for the value of the remaining property. 

Case III.—When the quantities to be added are all unlike. 
Rule .—Write down the quantities in succession, with their 
respective signs and coefficients, in one line. 

EXAMPLES. 

No. 2. 

cd—m 
2> no + S\ yz 

cd-m + 3no-r54>yz. 

24 a — 9m + 8 n x 




No. 1. 

24 a 
— 9 m 
8 n 
x 

















ARITHMETIC. 


151 


SUBTRACTION. 

Subtraction in algebra is performed by changing the sign of 
the quantity to be subtracted, and then adding the two quantities 
together, as before shown. 


EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

12 6 + 8 d 
lb — 3d 

+ 56 + 11 d 


No. 2. 

9 m — 8 n + 32 
5 m — 9 n + 48 

4 m + 7 / + 16 


explanation. 

In the first example, where lb — 3d must be taken from 
126 + 8 d, if we change the sign of 76, which is + into —, 
and then add the two quantities together by the second rule 
of addition, we shall have +56: and in subtracting — 3d 
from + 8c?, if we change the — into +, and add these quan¬ 
tities together, we shall have + 11 d. Had the question been 
to take only lb from 126 + 8 d, the remainder would evidently 
have been 56 + 3d: but as the sum to be subtracted is less 
than 7 6 by thrice the value of e?, the remainder must be greater 
than it w ould have been, on the first supposition, by thrice the 
value of d ; that is, it must be 56 + \\d. 


MULTIPLICATION. 

Case I.—When the quantities to be multiplied have like signs, 
the sign of the product is + ; and when they have unlike signs 
it is —. When the given quantities are simple, find the sign of 
the product by the above rule, to which annex the product of the 
coefficients, if any, and then all the letters, to make up the product 
required. 

Thus, in the first example following, where the quantity 12 cd 
is to be multiplied by 9 tw, we multiply the coefficients 12 and 9, 
giving 108 for the coefficient of the product, and write, down the 
letters of both quantities, beginning with the multiplicand, prefixing 
the sign +, because the factors have both the same signs. 









152 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

-f- 12 cd 
4- 9 m 


No. 2. 

+ 7 b 
— 5 d 


No. 3. 

8 mnx 
5 noz 


-f 108 cdm 


— 3 5bd + 4?0mnxnoz 

- ■ ■■ ■ -■ . . ■ — . =r 


$ 

Case II.—When the factors are compound quantities, each 
term of the multiplicand is to be multiplied by each term of the 
multiplier, and the sum of these several products, collected accord¬ 
ing to the rules of addition, will be the general product required. 


EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

Multiply m -f n 
by in + n 

mm + mn 

inn + n n 


No. 2. 

8a + 2c — 4 d 
5a 


40 a? + 10 ac — 20 ad 


mm -f-2 mn nn 


EXPLANATION. 

In the example No. 1, where the quantity m + n is squared 
or multiplied into itself, beginning (as is done in multiplying 
feet and inches by feet and inches, in common arithmetic,) at 
the left hand with the quantity m, this multiplied by the m of 
the multiplicand gives for a product mn. Again, taking n 
for the multiplier, and going over the multiplicand, we have 
for a product mn 4* nn, which is set down, beginning under 
the multiplier n : and these two products added together give 
for the total product mm ■+* 2mn + nn. But when any 
number is multiplied by itself, the product is a square, or the 
second power of that number ; it is therefore usual instead of 
writing the quantity twice over, mm or nn, to set down the 
root with the second, third, or other power marked over it; 
hence, instead of mm -^r^mn + nn , we write m 2 + mn 4* n 2 . 

In the example No. 2, 8 a multiplied by 5a gives 40a 2 , 5a 
by 2c gives lOac ; and as both these quantities have like 
signs, the signs of the product are 4- : again, 5a by 4c? gives 
20ac?, and the signs being unlike, that of the product is — ; 
consequently, the total product is 40a 2 + lOac — 20ad. 


















ARITHMETIC. 


153 


These algebraic operations may be illustrated and confirmed tv 
common arithmetic in the following manner. In the first exam¬ 
ple for instance, let m represent 8 , and n 6 : then the operation 
will appear in this shape:— 


8+6 8 

8+6 - f -6 


64 + 48 14 , 

48 +36 4-14 


64 + 96 +36 = 196 = 196 


EXPLANATION. 


Here the component parts of the given quantity 8 and 6 
are separately multiplied together, and the result is the sum 
of the products of 8 multiplied by 8 , of twice 8 by 6 , and of 
6 by f y in all 196, which is the product of 14, the sum of the 
two parts 8 and 6 , multiplied by itself. 


DIVISION. 


Division of algebraic quantities is performed agreeably to the 
following rules ; observing that when the signs of the divisor and 
dividend are like, that of the quotient is -f-, when unlike, it 

is —. 


Case T. —When the divisor is simple, that is, contains but one 
term, and appears in each term of the dividend. 

Rule .—Divide the coefficient of each term of the dividend by 
the coefficient of the divisor, and expunge or withdraw from each 
term the letter or letters of the divisor, when the result will be 
the quotient. Thus, if it be required to divide 25 cd by 5c , we 
divide the coefficient 25 by the other 5, which will give 5 for the 
coefficient of the quotient: and cd being a product of which the 
c of the divisor is a factor, this symbol being expunged or taken 
away, the remaining symbol d will belong to the quotient, which 
will then be 5d. 









154 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


EXAMPLE. 

b am ) 5 a 3 m -f- *25 abm — Sam 1 (d‘ + 5 b -» 
5 a 3 m 


■+■ 25 abm 
25 abm 


—Sam 2 
5 am 2 


EXPLANATION. 

In beginning this operation, the divisor 5 am is to be taker 
out of the first term of the dividend 5 a 3 m : taking the root a 
from the third power, we have the second power of a for a 
term of the quotient; and as 5 is contained once in 5, and m 
once in m, neither of these coefficients (one) need to appear 
in the quotient ; they are therefore suppressed or expunged ; 
and the divisor 5 am being multiplied by the quotient a 2 , and 
the product 5 a 3 m written under the dividend is equal to it, 
and of course no remainder is left. The next term, 2 5 abm 
is then brought down, and the 5 of the divisor being contained 
5 times in the 25, 5 is placed as a coefficient in the quotient. 
Then am is contained b times in abm ; consequently, 5b 
becomes the term of the quotient corresponding to this step 
of the division, which term, multiplied into the divisor, gives 
25 abm , to be subtracted without a remainder. Lastly comes 
down the term — 5 am 2 , out of which if we take the divisor 
■+■ 5 am, the quotient must be — m : hence, the whole quotient 
in this operation will be a 2 + 5b — m. 

The same may be contracted by expunging the characters of 
the divisor from the dividend ; thus,— 

5 am ) 5 a 3 m + 25 abm — 5 am 2 ( 
a 2 + 5 b — m 

Case II. — When the divisor is simple, but not a factor or 
portion of any term of the dividend, the quotient must be ex¬ 
pressed as a fraction, of which the numerator is the dividend, and 
the denominator the divisor: thus, 48m divided by 9x can be 

expressed only as a fraction, . 

j x 









ARITHMETIC. 


155 


Case III.—When the divisor is complex, that is, contains 
more than one term, the first term of the dividend is divided by 
the first term of the divisor, and the quotient, being put down 
with the proper sign, is multiplied into the whole of the divisor, 
for a product to be subtracted from the dividend. If any thing 
remain, it becomes a new dividend, the first term of which is again 
divided by the first term of the divisor, and the quotient annexed, 
with the proper sign, to the foregoing term. Then the whole 
divisor is multiplied by this last part of the quotient, and the 
product subtracted from the last dividend; and so on, as long as 
any thing remains, or at least until it be evident that something 
will always remain. 

EXAMPLE. 

Divide .r 9 -f Z xz + z 2 by x + z. 

x+z ) # 2 + 2 xz + z 2 (x-\-z 

X 1 4 - XZ 


xz + z 2 
XZ 4 - z 2 


EXPLANATION. 

Here we enquire how often a?, the first term of the divisor, 
is contained in x 2 , the first term of the dividend : and as x 2 is 
the second power of x, or the product of x multiplied by x , it 
follows, that if we divide the product by the root, the quotient 
will be the same root: and multiplying by it the divisor, the 
product is x 2 + xz, which subtracted from the dividend will 
leave xz. To this, bringing down the remaining term z 2 , we 
have a new dividend xz 4 “ z 2 . I hen inquiring how often we 
can have x of the divisor in xz, w r e see it can be taken z times ; 
for x being one of the factors in the product, it is clear that z 
must be the other. This written in the quotient with the sign 
because the signs of the divisor and dividend are like or 
the same, we next multiply the whole divisor by z, producing 
xz 4* z 2 equal to the last dividend. 


EQUATIONS. 

Tn algebraic calculations it is generally the object, by means of 
certain known quantities, to discover others that are unknown, but 






156 ' YOUNG man’s companion. 

which are stated to stand in given proportions or relations to those 
known quantities. This is done by discovering what portion of 
such known quantities is equal in value to the required quantities; 
and the statement of this value is termed an equation . In the 
equation a + b — c = x, if the values of ab + c be known, their 
sum, which is x , must also be ascertained. An equation is said to 
be resolved when the known quantities are all placed on the one 
side of the sign of equality, and the unknown quantities on the 
other; and the value of the unknown quantities is called the root 
of the equation. When an equation expresses the mere value of 
a quantity it is a simple equation : when it contains the second 
power or the square of the unknown quantity, it is a quadratic 
equation; when it exhibits the third power or cube, it is a cubic 
equation ; the fourth power constitutes a biquadratic equation ; 
and so on with the higher powers. When the unknown quantity 
is connected with a known quantity and their conjunct value is 
also known, the unknown quantity may be transposed to the one 
side of the equation, and the known quantities to the other, as in 
this example, where the value of x is required, at the same time, 
that if 8 be taken from x , the remainder will be 20 ; x — 8 = 20. 


EXAMPLES. 

No. 1 

x — 8 = 20 

x — 20 + 8 
x = 28 


EXPLANATION. 

Here we see that if 8 be taken from the value of x, the re¬ 
mainder will be 20 ; consequently, 20 and 8 must be equal to 
x ; the 8 is therefore transposed to the opposite side of the 
equation with the sign — changed to -f-. 

No. 2. 

» . - v 

Let 8# + 4 be equal to 12# — 24; required the value of #. 

8x + 4 = 12# — 24 

Sx — 12# — 24_4 

8# = VIx _ 28 
Hx — 12# = 4# = 28 

7 


ARITHMETIC. 


157 


EXPLANATION. 

Here, as 8 a? is four less than 12# — 24, 8# alone must be 
equal to 12# —24 —4, or to 12# — 28; this last sum there¬ 
fore, 28, must be the difference between 8# and 12#, that is, 
equal to 4# ; consequently, x must be the fourth part of 28 
or 7 ; and that this is the case, may be easily shown in this 
way. The question states that 8# + 4 are equal to 12# — 24 : 
8 times 7 are 56, and adding 4, we have 60 : again, 12 times 
7 are 84, from which subtracting 24, we have 60 as before. 


APPLICATION. 

Two friends, A and B, each riding his own horse, set out on 
the same day and at the same hour, from London and Edinburgh, 
for the purpose of meeting upon the road. A proceeded from 
London at the rate of 24 miles every day, and B travelled from 
Edinburgh at the rate of 20 miles every day. It is now desired 
to say at what time and at what point of the road the friends will 
meet, the distance between the towns being 896 miles ? Let z 
represent the number of days travelled by each before meeting: 
then A’s journey will be represented by 24^, and B’s by 20 z: 
and as the sum of the two journeys must be equal to the whole 
distance between the towns, we proceed in the following way 


EXAMPLE. 

miles 

24 * + 20 z = 396 
44 z = 396 

_396 

Z 44 

z = 9 


EXPLANATION. 

Thus we find the number of days each travelled to be 9, 
which may be proved by computing the several distances. 
9 times 24 are 216 miles for A’s journey. 9 times 20 are 180 
miles for B’s journey ; and both together make 396 miles ; so 



158 


YOUNG MAN^ COMPANION. 


that the friends would meet at a spot 216 miles north from 
London, and 180 miles south from Edinburgh, between Bo- 
roughbridge and Wetherby, in Yorkshire. 

Those who wish further information on this subject, may con¬ 
sult Professor Sanderson's “ Elements of Algebra,” which is 
perhaps the completest elementary treatise in the English lan¬ 
guage. The smaller introductions are those of Fenning, Bonny- 
castle, Butler, and Joyce. 


Section V.—Logarithms. 


Logarithms consist of a series of numbers in arithmetical or regu¬ 
lar progression, adapted to another series in geometrical progression, 
or every figure doubled, as that 0 in the former always corresponds to 
1 in the latter, and the succeeding terms of the former to the suc¬ 
ceeding terms of the latter, each to each. The word ‘ logarithm ’ 
is derived from the Greek, Xoyog, ratio , and apiO/iog, number; 
and implies either the ratio of numbers, or number of ratios; both 
interpretations being descriptive of the number of logarithms. 
The use of logarithms is to lessen the labour and time which long 
calculations performed by common numbers necessarily require ; 
addition and subtraction by logarithms performing multiplication 
and division by numbers, &c. But the advantages attending the 
use of logarithms would be very limited indeed, if these useful 
numbers were exclusively confined to a geometrical progression ; 
the common numbers not being in geometrical, but in arithmetical 
progression : this defect has, however, been happily supplied by 
an admirable contrivance, whereby logarithms are extended to the 
entire algorithm of numbers; every number, whether integral or 
fractional, having its proper logarithm. The fundamental pro¬ 
perty of logarithms is this ;—if an arithmetical progression be 
applied to a geometrical one, in the manner above stated, the 
terms of the former will be indiced to those of the latter; now, if 
any two of these indices be added together, the sum will be the 
index of the product of the two numbers corresponding to those 
indices : if one index be subtracted from another, the remainder 
will be the index of the quotient which arises by dividing the 
number corresponding with the former, by that corresponding with 
the latter : if an index be multiplied by any number, the product 


ARITHMETIC. 


159 


will be the index of the term which is the power denoted by that 
number ; and if an index be divided by any number, the quotient 
will be the index of the root denoted by that number. 

Logarithms were invented by John, Lord Napier, of Marchis- 
ton, near Edinburgh, in Scotland, who in 1614 gave to the world 
tables of these artificial numbers. No sooner was this admirably 
useful invention made known, than ingenious men, in various parts 
of Europe, set themselves with earnestness to understand and 
improve so valuable a discovery. It was, however, to the cele¬ 
brated Henry Briggs, first of Gresham College, in London, after¬ 
wards professor of Geometry at Oxford, that the world was chiefly 
indebted for various improvements in logarithms. He travelled 
more than once down to Edinburgh to visit and confer with Lord 
Napier ; and to the interchange of conceptions between those two 
geometricians of the first order, the world owes the perfect sim¬ 
plicity and utility of modern logarithms. 

The first fruit of Mr. Briggs’ labours in this way, was his 
“ Logarithmorum Chilias Prima,” which appeared in 1617, after 
Napier’s death, containing the first thousand logarithms to eight 
places of figures, besides the index. Mr. Edmund Gunter adapted 
Mr. Briggs’ logarithms, first of any, to the sines and tangents : he 
computed them for every minute, to seven places of figures, 
besides the index: this work first appeared in 1620, under the 
title of “A Canon of Triangles,” and was reprinted in 1623, with 
the addition of the “Chilias Prima” of Briggs. The same year, 
Gunter applied the logarithms of numbers, sines, tangents, &c. to 
a straight-ruler, whereby computations may be performed by a 
pair of compasses only: this instrument is still known by the 
name of ‘Gunter’s Scale.’ Other methods of projecting these 
numbers on circular, sliding, and spiral instruments, were after¬ 
wards invented by Wingate, Oughtred, Milburne, and Partridge. 
Tn 1624, Mr. Briggs published his “Arithmetica Logarithmica,” 
containing the logarithms of numbers from 1 to 20,000, and from 
90,000 to 100,000, with ample directions for their use, and an 
earnest invitation or request, addressed to mathematicians, to 
induce them to assist in the completion of the work, by computing 
the intermediate numbers. This task was undertaken and effected 
by Adrian Vlacq, of Gouda, in Holland ; who, besides supplying 
tlie intermediate chiliads, added tables of artificial sines, tangents, 
and secants, for every minute of the quadrant. Since this time 
many improvements have been introduced. Dr. Hutton’s “Mathe¬ 
matical Tables,” published in 1785, contain the logarithms of 
numbers from 1 to 100,000, to seven decimals ; logarithms to 20 
places ; logarithms to 61 places, kc. 


I GO 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


NATURE AND USE OF LOGARITHMS, 


If a series of numbers be taken, increasing in any given propor¬ 
tion, so that the succeeding number shall be double the number 
before it, (i.e. in geometrical progression,) as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 
64, &c. and opposite to them place another set of numbers 
increasing by arithmetical progression, so that each succeeding 
number shall be 1 more than the number immediately before it, 
as I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, &c. ; this curious effect and property 
will be found, that, by simply adding together the latter numbers, 
and observing that number of the first set, opposite to which this 
sum stands, we at once discover the product which would have 
been obtained by the multiplication of the two quantities in the 
set of geometrical progressionals, to which the arithmetical pro- 
gressionals correspond. This will be more intelligible from a con¬ 
sideration of the following table :— 


Table 1. 


1 

2 

4 

8 

16 

32 

64 

128 

256 

512 

! 0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

6 

y 


The upper row of numbers contains a set increasing regularly 
in such a geometrical proportion, that each succeeding number is 
double its predecessor: thus, 2 are double 1, 8 are double 4, 512 
are double 256. In the lower row are a set of numbers increasing 
arithmetically by the addition of one; and these lower numbers 
are indexes of the number of reduplications, by which the upper 
set have been respectively increased. 

Table 2. 


i 

10 

100 

1000 

10,000 

100,000 

1.000,000 

0 

] 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 


In the above table, the numbers in the upper row proceed in a 
tenfold geometrical proportion, each succeeding number being ten 
times its immediate predecessor; and the lower row of numbers 
increasing in an arithmetical proportion by one, point out how 
often the upper numbers opposite to each have undergone this 





































ARITHMETIC. 


161 


tenfold multiplication. The zero or nought i« placed opposite to 
the original number 1 : but 2 indicates the number above it to be 
produced by 2 multiplications by 10: for 10 times 1 are 10, 
and 10 times 10 are 100. The index 4 shows that 10,000 is pro¬ 
duced by 4 multiplications by 10; and 6 marks the 6 multiplica¬ 
tions by 10, by which 1 is increased to 1,000,000. In both the 
tables here given as specimens, (for the rate of increase may be 
varied at pleasure,) the numbers in the lower row, increasing bv 
the addition of 1, are the logarithmic numbers, corresponding to 
tne natural numbers, increasing by a much more rapid augmenta¬ 
tion in the upper row. 

As an example of the nature and use of these logarithmic 
numbers, let us suppose it were required to find the prodv ct of 4 
multiplied by 8. Table 1. Under 4 in the upper row or the 
natural numbers, we have 2 for its logarithm, and under the natural 
number 8 we have 3 for its logarithm. Then adding these two 
logarithms 2 and 3 together, we have 5 for the logarithm of the 
product; and over 5 we find 32 the natural product from multi¬ 
plying 4 by 8. 

In the same way in Table 2, when the natural numbers augment 
in a tenfold proportion, if we wanted to know the product of 10 
by 1000, we would simply add together the indexes under 10 and 
1000, which are 1 and 3, and above 4 their sum, we would find 
10,000, the product required. If we wanted to discover the value 
of 10 multiplied by 100, and their product by 1000, we have only 
to add together the logarithms in the lower row corresponding to 
those natural numbers ; viz. 1, 2, and 3, amounting to 6, over 
which logarithm we find 1,000,000, the ultimate product required. 

To divide any given number by another, all we have to do is, 
from the logarithm of the greater number to subtract that of the 
less, when the remainder will be the logarithm of the quotient. 

Thus, (Table 1,) let it be required to divide 512 by 8. From 
9, the logarithm standing under the dividend 512, subtract 3 the 
logarithm under the divisor 8 and 6, the remainder is the logarithm 
of 64, the quotient of 512, divided by 8. 

To divide 1,000,000 by 10,000 in Table 2, from 6, the loga¬ 
rithm of the dividend, we take away 4, the logarithm of the divisor 
when the remainder 2 is the logarithm standing under 100, the 
desired quotient. 

To square any number, as 8, we have only to double the loga¬ 
rithm in Table 1, which is 3 making 6, above which we have 64, 
which is the square of 8: and the cube of 8 will be found by 
taking three times its logarithm 3 or 9, which stands under 512, 
the cube of 8. 


v 


162 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


To extract the square root of any given sum, as 64, we have 
only to take one-half of its logarithm 6 or 3, which is the logarithm 
of 8, the square root of 64 that was wanted : and the cube root ot 
any quantity, as 512, will be found by merely taking the third 
part of its logarithm 9, which is 3, the logarithm of 8, the cube 
root of 512 that w r as required. 

From the specimens here exhibited, the reader will be enabled 
to form a notion of the nature and uses of logarithms. According 
to the mode now adopted in constructing logarithmetic tables, by 
which the natural numbers increase in a tenfold proportion, the 
logarithm of 1 or unity being 0, that of 10 is 1, that of 100 is 2, 
that of 1000 is 3, that of 10,000 is 4, &c. : or in other words, 
the integral part of the logarithm is always one less than the 
number of figures in the natural number. This integral part is 
called the characteristic or index of the logarithm, because it 
points out and determines the number of places of figures in the 
corresponding natural number. Thus, the index 0 belongs to all 
numbers under 10 : 1 belongs to all including and from 10 to and 
including 99 ; 2 to all including 999, &c. 

Hence, also, it follows that numbers differing from one another 
in a tenfold proportion, will have the fractional part of their loga¬ 
rithms all the same, but the integral part or index varying accord¬ 
ing to the number of figures in the several numbers. Thus, in the 
figures of the year 1814 :— 


Natural numbers. 

1814. = 

181.4 = 

18.14 = 

1.814 = 


Logarithms. 

3.258637 

2.258637 

1.258637 
0.258637 


That the reader may learn the manner of using tables of loga¬ 
rithms of natural numbers, a specimen is here introduced, com¬ 
prising oil numbers, from 1 to 100. 


161 


ARITHMETIC. 


LOGARITHMS OF NATURAL NUMBERS. 


■Vat. N 

Logarithm. 

Nat. N 

Logarithm. 

T 

Nat. N 

Logarithm. 

Nat. N 

Logarithm. 

1 

0.00000 

26 

1.41497 

51 

1.70757 

76 

1.88081 

2 

0.30103 

27 

1.43136 

52 

1.71603 

77 

1.88649 

3 

0.47712 

28 

1.44716 

53 

1.72428 

78 

1.89209 

4 

0.60206 

29 

1.46240 

54 

1.73240 

79 

1.90763 

5 

0 69897 

30 

1.47712 

55 

1.74036 

80 

1.90309 

6 

0.77815 

31 

1.49136 

56 

1.74819 

81 

1.90849 

7 

0.84510 

32 

1.50515 

57 

1.75587 

82 

1.91381 

8 

0.90309 

33 

1.51851 

58 

1.76342 

83 

1.91908 

9 

0.95424 

34 

1.53148 

59 

1 77085 

84 

1.92428 

10 

1.00000 

35 

1.54407 

60 

1.77815 

85 

1.92942 

11 

1.04139 

36 

1.55630 

61 

1.78533 

86 

1.93450 

12 

1.07918 

37 

1.56820 

62 

1.79239 

87 

1.93952 

13 

1.11394 

38 

1.57978 

63 

1.79934 

88 

1.94448 

14 

1.14613 

39 

1.59106 

64 

1.80618 

89 

1.94939 

15 

1.17609 

40 

1.60206 

65 

1.81291 

90 

1.95424 

16 

1.20412 

41 

1.61278 

66 

1.81954 

91 

1.95904 

17 

1.23045 

42 

1.62325 

67 

1 82607 

92 

1.96379 

18 

1.25527 

43 

1.63347 

68 

1.83251 

93 

1.96848 

19 

1.27875 

44 

1.64345 

69 

1.83885 

94 

1.97314 

20 

1.30103 

45 

1.65321 

70 

1.84510 

95 

1.97772 

21 

1.32222 

46 

1.66276 

71 

1.85126 

96 

1.98227 

22 

1.34242 

47 

1.67210 

72 

1.85733 

97 

1.98677 

23 

1.36173 

48 

1.68124 

73 

1.86332 

98 

1.99123 

24 

1.38021 

49 

1.68920 

74 

1.86923 

99 

1.99565 

25 

1.39794 

50 

1.69897 

75 

1.87506 

100 

2.00000 


The foregoing table is used in the following manner:—If the 
logarithm of any number within its limits be wanted, e.g. 64, 
look for that number in the narrow column of natural numbers 
(marked Nat. N.) at the top, and on the same line, in the broad 
column on the right hand (marked Logarithm) you find 1.80618: 
in the same way, the logarithm of 5 will be founcT 0.69897, and 
that of 100 is 2.00000. 

Again, if the natural number corresponding to any given loga¬ 
rithm be required, search in the column of logarithms for the one 
given, and on the left hand in the column of numbers is what is 
wanted : thus, if the logarithm 1.80618 be wanted, by tracing the 
order of the figures it will be found ; and on the left, the natural 



































164 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


number corresponding, which is 64. In the course of calculations, 
however, it frequently happens that we have occasion for natural 
numbers higher than the tables contain ; as for example, the table 
here given goes only to include 100, but we want the logarithm of 
144. The fractional part of the logarithm 140, which is the nearest 
below 144, being the same with that of 14, take it from the table 
which is .14613 : in the same way, take the fractional part of the 
logarithm for 15, the same with that for 150, the nearest number 
above 144, which is .17609. The difference between these two 
fractions is .02996, corresponding to 10, the difference between 
140 and 150: but in order to know how much 144 exceeds 140 
in the fractional part, state the following proportion :—As 10, the 
excess of 150 above 140, to the difference of fractions .02996, so 
4, the excess of 144, above the same 140 to a fourth number, 
which, by the Simple Rule of Three, will turn out .01198. This 
quantity, added to .14613, the fractional part of 140, will give 
.15811 as the fractional part of the logarithm of 144; and this 
number consisting of three figures, the index or characteristic must 
be 2; consequently, the logarithm of 144 must be 2.15811. 

Multiplication is performed in logarithms as in the follow¬ 
ing examples, where it is required to multiply 12 by 8. Find in 
the tables the logarithms of these numbers : add them together, 
and in the column of logarithms look for the sum or the nearest 
to it, when the natural number opposite to it will be the required 
product. 


EXAMPLES. 

No. 1. 

Logarithm of 12 is 1.07918 \ , , 

„ 8 = 0.90309 j 

Product 96 = 1.98227 


No. 2. 


Again, 3 by 5, and the product by 6. 


Multiply 


Logarithm of 3 is 0.47712 \ 

„ 5 =0.69897 [ add 

„ 6 =0.77815 ) 


Product 90 = 1.95424 








ARITHMETIC. 


165 


Division is performed by subtracting the logarithm of the 
least quantity from that of the greatest, when the difference will 
be the logarithm of the quotient, as follows, where 96 must be 
divided by 12 


EXAMPLES. 


No. 1. 

Logarithm of 96 is 1.98227 

» 12 =s 1.07918 subtract 

Quotient 8 = 0.90309 


No. 2. 

Divide 90 by 6, and the quotient by 5. 

Logarithm of 90 is 1.95424 

„ b = 0.77815 subtract 


Quotient. . . 15 = 1.17609 
Logarithm of 5 = 0.69897 subtract 


Quotient . . 3 = 0.47712 


In the foregoing examples, the utility of logarithms cannot be 
so apparent as it deserves, because only such small numbers as 
come within the specimen of the tables are chosen : but when 
considerable numbers are employed, as in the following example, 
the advantages of logarithms will be evident. 

Suppose it were required to multiply 98730 by 5865 ; by 
logarithms, the operation is performed very speedily, as follows :— 

EXAMPLE. 

Logarithm of 98730 = 4.99445 > , . * 

„ 5865 = 3.76827 1 a ' ld 

Product 579051450 = 8.76272 


This multiplication done in common numbers is not only tedious, 
but subject to mistakes, which can scarcely occur in the above short 
operation. 











1C6 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


CHAPTER V. 

COMMERCE, TRADE, &c. 


The term 4 commerce 1 is usually applied to that exchange of 
commodities which takes place between different nations, while 
the dealings between inhabitants of the same countries are gene¬ 
rally denominated ‘trade.’ 


Section I.— History and General Principles. 

The advantages of commerce began to engage the attention of 
mankind at a very early period. About 1300 years after the 
Flood, the commerce of the Phoenicians had attained to a consi¬ 
derable extent: they possessed manufactures, entered into com¬ 
mercial partnerships, made long voyages, had resident agents to 
foreign countries, and had adopted the practice of lending money 
on bottomry. The Greeks and Romans, particularly the latter, 
carried on an extensive trade, considering the imperfect state of 
navigation. The reign of Augustus was particularly favourable to 
commerce, as the general peace which then prevailed enabled the 
merchants to pursue their concerns unmolested. The establish¬ 
ment of Christianity in the northern parts of Germany, in conse¬ 
quence of the conquests of Charlemagne, produced a connexion 
between those parts and the southern parts of Europe, which 
naturally led to an interchange of produce, and gradually intro¬ 
duced foreign commerce in the north. The Germans had, how¬ 
ever, previously to this period, cultivated a commercial intercourse 
with the neighbouring states, which was afterwards much in¬ 
creased by the discovery of valuable mines in Saxony, and the 
establishment of some manufactures in Flanders. 

In the ninth century, the Venetians carried on a very beneficial 
commerce with the Levant ; whence they bought spices, silks, 
drugs, and fruits, from the East, in great abundance, and supplied 



COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


167 


the greater part of Europe with these commodities. The crusades 
contributed materially to the revival of commerce during the 
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, by introducing an acquaintance 
with the luxuries of the East, which multiplied the objects of 
foreign trade. About this time, the commercial towns bordering 
on the coasts of the Baltic, finding their trade much interrupted 
by pirates, entered into agreement for mutual support and assist¬ 
ance. This union, which became very celebrated, under the title 
of the Hanseatic League, at first consisted of only twelve towns, 
but finally of upwards of seventy, including all the principal com¬ 
mercial towns of Europe, and embracing nearly all the foreign 
trade then carried on. 

The invention of the mariner’s compass, which enabled trading 
vessels to make much longer voyages, and led to the discovery of 
a passage to the East Indies, by the Cape of Good Hope, with 
the settlements made on the coast of Africa, in Arabia, and in 
India, affected very materially the commerce of the Mediterranean, 
and of the Hanse Towns, and threw the principal part of the 
foreign trade of Europe into the hands of the Portuguese. 
TheVenetians, however, still carried on a great trade with India 
by way of Egypt, for spices and other eastern commodities: 
the Indian goods were first landed at Aden in Arabia, carried 
across that country on canals to the Red Sea, thence overland to 
the Nile, down that river to Cairo and Alexandria, and thence 
transported to Venice, whence the Venetians circulated them 
through every part of Europe. 

The Dutch soon began to rival the Portuguese in trade ; and 
in a little time not only dispossessed them of nearly the whole, 
but from their industry and skill in navigation, and their attention 
to the fisheries, acquired an extent of foreign trade considerably 
greater than had been previously possessed by any European 
power. The discovery of America opened a new and extensive 
field for commercial adventure, while the establishment of manu¬ 
factures produced new articles of trade. The persecutions of 
the Spaniards drove great numbers of industrious workmen from 
the Netherlands into England and other countries, who introduced 
several manufactures into this country, and greatly improved others 
which were already established. While the different branches of 
its manufactures were thus improving, its colonial possessions in 
the East and West Indies were greatly increased, and Great 
Britain was enabled to rival the Dutch, not only in manufactured 
goods, but also in all the principal articles of colonial produce. 

The vast extent to which the commerce of this country has 
expanded, appears astonishing when it is considered how great a 


168 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


proportion of tlie materials of its manufactures are of foreign 
produce, and the many duties with which the increase of tlrt 
national expenditure has loaded most articles of foreign trade. 
The natural advantages arising from the situation of this country, 
its formidable navy, and extensive colonial possessions, particularly 
in the East Indies, have favoured and protected its commercial 
intercourse ; while the accumulated capital of individuals has 
gradually enabled them to give very considerable credit to their 
customers, which of late years, has been of much importance in 
increasing the commerce of Great Britain to its present extent. 

Besides trading with all civilized nations, the British have 
established settlements or colonies in Asia, Africa, America and 
Australasia ; by which means they enjoy the profits of cultivation 
in addition to those of local monopoly. Among these the fol¬ 
lowing are the principal:—In Asia, Bengal, the countries on the 
Ganges, the coasts of Coromandel and Malabar, and the islands 
of Ceylon and Sumatra. From these and neighbouring countries, 
they bring to Europe spices, silk, rice, tea, muslin, coffee, drugs, 
perfumes, and precious stones. In Africa, the colonies of Britain 
are the Cape of Good Hope, Goree, Sierra Leone, and parts of 
the coast of Guinea. From these, they bring to Europe, gold 
dust, ivory, gums, and drugs. In America, the British provinces 
of Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, &c. produce furs, corn, 
and fish. In the West Indies, Great Britain occupies Jamaica, 
Barbadoes, and several other islands, besides Demerara, &c., on 
the main; all of which supply sugar, rum, cotton, coffee, spices, 
drugs, mahogany, dried and preserved fruit, &c. These luxuries 
become desirable mediums of exchange for the produce and 
manufactures of other countries. They are sent to Russia, in 
exchange for hemp, tar, and tallow ; to Sweden, for copper; 
to Norway, for timber ; to Germany, for wool, rags, and smalts 
for paper; to France, for wine and brandy; to Portugal, for 
wine ; to Spain, for gold, silver, and fruit; to Italy, for silk, 
rags, oil, and fruit; and to Turkey, for silk, drugs, oil, and coffee. 
The colonies in the New Southern Continent and Islands, ar<f 
at present too much in their infancy to derive any important 
advantages from them. 

The trade of Great Britain with foreign nations, is carried on 
partly by companies, and partly by private merchants. The 
most considerable companies are the following, though most of 
them are now, in part, superseded by the permission since granted 
to private merchants:—the East India Company, which enjovs a 
]>artial monopoly of the trade to Asia; and the Hudson’s Bav 
Company, which monopolizes the trade in furs from these countries. 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


169 


There were also the Turkey, Russia, African, and South Sea 
Companies ; some of these are however extinct. (See the next 
Section.) There is a Board of 'Trade and Colonies, with com¬ 
missioners, clerks, &c. &c., but none of them are traders. There 
are British consuls at 126 foreign ports, or commercial cities, 
and about the same number from all foreign governments in the 
ports and towns of the United Kingdom. 

The foreign ships entered inwards were, in 1816, 3974; m 
1826, 6166; in 1829, 5 406; and 1830,5218. London owns 
2663 ships ; Newcastle, 987; Liverpool, 805; Sunderland, 624; 
Whitehaven, 496; Hull, 579 ; Bristol, 316; Yarmouth, 579 ; 
Plymouth, 302 ; Dartmouth, 349 ; Beaumaris, 389 ; Cardigan, 
281 ; Gloucester, 247 ; Rochester, 255 ; Faversham, 217; 
Colchester, 235 ; Greenock, 371 ; Glasgow, 235 ; Aberdeen, 
350 ; Dundee, 299 ; Leith, 263 ; Grangemouth, 204 ; Belfast, 
247 ; Dublin, 289 ; Cork, 256 ; Jersey, 200; and Man, 217 ; 
with other ports; in all, 19,110, and 2,199,959 tons. There 
were 241 steam vessels in 1829 in England, of 20,611 tons; 75 
in Scotland, of 5953 tons; and 26 in Ireland, of 4791 tons; 
total, 342 vessels ; since increased to 400. Of 13,475 vessels 
which passed the Sound in 1829, 4790 were British, and only 
181 French, and 181 Americans. 

The exports at the British custom-houses are estimated at a 
standard rate of value, for the purpose of comparing, in equal 
values, one year with another. This official value was fixed in 
the reign of William III. On the other hand, the merchants 
declare an invoice price, called the declared value, and the dif¬ 
ference between the two indicates the comparative profits of trade. 
In 1828, the declared value of exports were <£*36,814,176 ; and 
in 1827, £*37,182,857. _ 

The inland or domestic trade of Great Britain and Ireland, is 
carried on by means of many thousand waggons and stage-coaches; 
by canals, rail-roads, and rivers, which intersect eveiy part of the 
two islands ; and by hundreds of coasting vessels, which carry 
the produce and manufactures from one place to another. The 
coasting trade of the United Kingdom, including colliers, employs 
about 3000 vessels, of which about 1200 are colliers. The 
number of coasting vessels, which arrive in the port of London an¬ 
nually, is about 18,000, or three times the number which it was at 
the beginning of the last century. By Mr. Williams’s evidence in 
1829, "England has of canals 2,400 miles; navigable rivers, 2,000 ; 
railroads, 400 ; since greatly increased. Ireland has of canals 
280 miles; navigable rivers, 150; river Shannon, 230- About 
3000 parcels arrive daily in London by coaches and waggons. 

z 


170 


YOI NG MAN’S COMPANION. 


The chief manufacturing towns in England are, for cutlery 
and metallic wares, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Sheffield; 
for calicoes and muslins, Manchester, Stockport, Bolton, Glasgow, 
and Paisley; for woollen cloths, Leeds and Norwich; for hosiery, 
Nottingham, and Leicester; for linens, Belfast and Londonderry ; 
for carpets, Kidderminster and Wilton ; and for china, porcelain, 
and glass, Newcastle and Worcester. 

Of cotton manufactures, in 1829, there were exported 363 
millions of yards, value 12J millions; of cotton, twist, and yarn, 
50 millions of lbs., value 3g millions; of linens, 60| millions of 
yards, value 2^ millions ; of woollens, 1,820,631 pieces, value 
<^4,397,291 ; and 6,816,407 yards, value <P527,476, with other 
articles, forming a declared value of <£36,812,756. Cotton is 
the chief branch of our manufacturing system, (double that of all 
the rest of the world,) and the most extraordinary commercial 
operation ever carried on by any nation. The cotton manufacturing 
district of Lancashire includes the parish of Manchester, equal to 
sixty square miles ; Oldham, about 20 square miles ; Rochdale, 
Middleton, Stockport, Bury, Oldham, Blackburn, &c., and the 
whole contains about 72,000 families, engaged chiefly in this 
fabric, which at 6| makes 468,000 souls by the returns of 1821, 
and now probably 80,000 families, and 520,000 souls. Of these 
the Manchester district contained, in 1821, about 32,000 families; 
Ashton, 4500 ; Oldham, 7000 ; Rochdale, 7500 ; Middleton, 
2000 ; Bury, 6000 ; Bolton and Wigan, 4000 ; and other places, 
9000 more. In Derbyshire, Cheshire, and other districts, at least 
as many more, or nearly two millions, depend on this fabric. 

Such are the principal facts in relation to the history of com¬ 
merce, in which it will be seen at one view how conspicuous a share 
is taken by our own country. We now proceed to notice some 
of the leading principles on which these important transactions 
are carried on, and the connexion which naturally subsists between 
our home and our foreign trade. Let not this subject be deemed 
dry or uninteresting to the youth of Great Britain, seeing that it 
is upon these principles that our unrivalled prosperity, as compared 
with that of other nations, entirely depends. While the exchange 
of different commodities is carried on in any country by the pro¬ 
ducers themselves, they must unavoidably lose a great deal of 
time, and experience many inconveniences. Were there no 
merchants, a farmer wishing to sell his crop would be obliged, in 
the first place, to seek for customers, and to dispose of his corn 
as nearly as possible in such quantities as might suit the demands 
of the various individuals inclined to buy it; and after getting 
its price, he would next be obliged to send to ten or twenty 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


171 


different, and, perhaps, remote places, for the commodities he 
wanted to get in its stead. So that, besides being exposed to a 
world of trouble and inconvenience, his attention would be con¬ 
tinually diverted from the labours of his farm. Under such a 
a state of things, the work of production, in every different 
employment, would be meeting with perpetual interruptions, and 
many branches of industry, that are successfully carried on in a 
commercial country, would not be undertaken. 

The establishment of a distinct mercantile class effectually 
obviates these inconveniences. When a set of dealers erect 
warehouses and shops for the purchase and sale of all descriptions 
of commodities, every producer, relieved from the necessity of 
seeking customers, and knowing beforehand where he may at all 
times be supplied with such products as he requires, devotes his 
whole time and energies to his proper business. The intervention 
of merchants gives a continuous and uninterrupted motion to the 
plough and the loom. Were the class of traders annihilated, all 
the springs of industry would be paralyzed. The numberless 
difficulties that would then occur in effecting exchange would 
lead each particular family to endeavour to produce all the articles 
they had occasion for: society would thus be thrown back into 
primeval barbarism and ignorance ; the divisions of labour would 
be relinquished ; and the desire to rise in the world, and improve 
our condition, would decline, according as it became more difficult 
to gratify it. It is by the assistance each individual renders to 
and receives from his neighbours, by every one applying himself 
in preference to some peculiar task, and combining, though pro¬ 
bably without intending it, his efforts with those of others, that 
civilized man becomes equal to the most gigantic efforts; and 
appears endowed with almost omnipotent power. 

The labours of the mercantile classes enable the inhabitants of 
each district to apply themselves principally to those employments 
that are naturally best suited to them. This superadding of the 
division of labour among different provinces to its division among 
different individuals, renders the productive powers of industry 
immeasurably greater ; and augments the mass of necessaries, 
conveniences, and enjoyments, in a degree that could not pre¬ 
viously have been conceived possible, and which cannot be 
exceeded except by the introduction of foreign commerce. 

“ With the benefits of commerce,” says an eloquent and phi¬ 
losophical writer, “ or a ready exchange of commodities, every 
individual is enabled to avail himself, to the utmost, of the pecu¬ 
liar advantage of his place ; to work on a peculiar material with 
which nature has furnished him ; to humour his genius or dia- 


172 


YOUNG MAK’s COMPANION. 


position, and betake himself to the task in which lie is peculiarly 
qualified to succeed. The inhabitant of the mountain may betake 
himself to the culture of his woods and the manufacture of his 
timber; the owner of pasture-lands may betake himself to the 
care of his herds ; the owner of the clay-pit to the manufacture of 
his pottery; and the husbandman to the culture of his fields, or the 
rearing of his cattle ; and any one commodity, however it may 
form but a small part in the accommodations of human life, may, 
under the facility of commerce, find a market in which it may be 
exchanged for what will procure any other, or the whole ; so that 
the owner of the clay-pit, or the industrious potter, without producing 
any one article immediately fit to supply his own necessities, may 
obtain possession of all that he wants. And commerce, in which 
it appears that commodities are merely exchanged, and nothing 
produced, is, nevertheless, in its effects, very productive, because 
it ministers a facility and an encouragement to every artist in 
multiplying the productions of his own art; thus adding greatly 
to the mass of wealth in the world, in being the occasion that 
much is produced ."—Fergusons Principles of Modern Science . 

What home trade is to the different provinces of the same 
country, foreign trade is to all the countries of the world. Par¬ 
ticular countries produce only particular commodities, and, were 
it not for foreign commerce, would be entirely destitute of all 
but such as are indigenous to their own soil. It is difficult 
for those who have not reflected on the subject, to imagine what 
a vast deduction would be made, not only from the comforts, but 
from the necessaries of every commercial people, were its in¬ 
tercourse with strangers put an end to. It is not, perhaps, too 
much to say that in Great Britain we owe to our intercourse with 
other nations a full half, or more, of all that we enjoy. We are 
not only indebted to it for the cotton and silk manufactures, and 
for supplies of wine, tea, coffee, sugar, the precious metals, &c.; 
but we are also indebted to it for most of the fruits and vegetables 
that we now cultivate. At the same time, too, that foreign com¬ 
merce supplies us with an immense variety of most important articles, 
of which we must otherwise have been wholly ignorant, it enables 
us to employ our industry in the mode in which it is sure to be 
most productive, and reduces the price of almost every article. 
We do not misemploy our labour in raising sugar from the beet¬ 
root, in cultivating tobacco, or in forcing vines; but we employ 
ourselves in those departments of manufacturing industry in which 
our command of coal, of capital, and of improved machinery, 
give us an advantage; and obtain the articles produced more 
cheaply by foreigners, in exchange for the surplus produce of 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


TO 


those branches in which w r e have a superiority over them. A 
commercial nation like England avails herself of all the peculiar 
facilities of production given by Providence to different countries. 
To produce claret here is perhaps impossible; and at all events 
could not be accomplished, unless at more than a hundred times 
the expense required for its production in France. We do not, 
however, deny ourselves the gratification desirable from its use; 
and to obtain it, we have only to send to France, or to some 
country indebted to France, some article in the production of 
which we have an advantage, and we get claret in exchange at 
the price which it takes to raise it under the most favourable 
circumstances. One country has peculiar capacities for raising 
corn, but is at the same time destitute of wine, silk, and tea; 
another again, has peculiar facilities for raising the latter, but is 
destitute of the former; and it is impossible to point out a single 
country which is abundantly supplied with any considerable va¬ 
riety of commodities of domestic growth. Providence, by giving 
to each particular nation something which the others want, has 
evidently intended that they should be mutually dependent upon 
one another. 

The commerce of one country with another is, in fact, to use 
the words of an able and profound writer, “ merely an extension 
of that division of labour by which so many benefits are conferred 
upon the human race. As the same country is rendered the richer 
by the trade of one province with another; as its labour becomes 
thus infinitely more divided and more productive than it could 
otherwise have been ; and as the mutual supply to each other of 
all the accommodations which one province has, and another wants, 
multiplies the accommodations of the whole, and the country 
becomes thus in a wonderful degree more opulent and happy; the 
same beautiful train of consequences is observable in the world at 
large,—that great empire of which the different kingdoms and 
tribes of men may be regarded as the provinces. In this magni¬ 
ficent empire, too, one province is favourable to the production of 
one species of accommodation, and another province to another : 
by their mutual intercourse they are enabled to sort and distribute 
their labour as most peculiarly suits the genius of each particular 
spot. The labour of the human race thus becomes much more 
productive, and every species of accommodation is afforded in 
much greater abundance. The same number of labourers, whose 
efforts might have been expended in producing a very insignificant 
quantity of home-made luxuries, may thus, in Great Britain, 
produce a quantity of articles for exportation, accommodated to 
the wants of other places, and peculiarly suited to the genius of 


174 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Britain to furnish, which will purchase for her an accumulation of 
the luxuries of every quarter of the globe. There is not a greater 
proportion of her population employed in administering to her 
luxuries, in consequence of her commerce; there is probably a 
good deal less ; but their labour is infinitely more productive : 
the portion of commodities which the people of Great Britain 
acquire by means of the same labour, is vastly greater.” 

The statements already made, by explaining the nature and 
principles of commercial transactions, are sufficient to evince the 
inexpediency of subjecting them to any species of restraint. It 
is obvious, indeed, that restrictions are founded on false principles. 
When individuals are left to pursue their own interest in their 
own way, they naturally resort to those branches of industry which 
they reckon most advantageous for themselves ; and, we have 
just seen, these are the very branches in which it is most for the 
public interest that they should be employed. Unless, therefore, 
it could be shown that a government can judge better as to what 
sort of transactions are profitable or otherwise than private indi¬ 
viduals, its regulations cannot be of the smallest use, and may be 
exceedingly injurious. But any such pretension on the part of 
government would be universally scouted. It is undeniably 
certain that a regard to our own interest is, if not an unerring 
guide to direct us in such matters, at least incomparably better 
than any other. If the trade with a particular country, or in a par¬ 
ticular commodity, be a losing one, or merely a less profitable one 
than others, it is quite as necessary to pass an act to prevent it 
from being carried on, as it would be to interfere to prevent indi¬ 
viduals from selling their labour or their commodities below the 
market price. It appears, therefore, that all regulations affecting 
the freedom of commerce, or of any branch of industry, are either 
useless or pernicious. They are useless, when they are intended 
to protect the interest of individuals by preventing them from en¬ 
gaging in disadvantageous business; and pernicious, when they 
prevent them from engaging in those that are advantageous. The 
self-interest of the parties concerned is the only safe principle to 
go by in such matters. When the acts of the legislature are in 
unison with it, there is nothing to object to in them, save only 
• that they might as well not exist; but whenever they are incon¬ 
sistent with it, that is, whenever they tend to divert capital and 
industry into channels, into which individuals, if left to their own 
discretion, would not have carried them, they are decidedly in¬ 
jurious. 

The principles of commercial freedom, and the injurious influ¬ 
ence of restrictive regulations, were set down in a very striking 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


1 *f • 

<3 

point of view by Dr. Smith in his great work; and they have 
been since repeatedly explained and elucidated. Perhaps, however, 
the true doctrines upon this subject have nowhere been better 
stated than in the petition presented by the merchants of London 
to the House of Commons, on the 8th of May, 1820. This 
document is one of the most gratifying proofs of liberal and en¬ 
larged views. It was subscribed by all the principal merchants of 
the metropolis, who have not scrupled to express their conviction, 
that the repeal of every protective regulation would be for the 
public advantage. Such an address, confirming, as it did, the 
conclusions of science, by the approval of the best informed and 
most extensive merchants of the world, had a powerful influence 
on the legislature. During the last ten years several most impor¬ 
tant reforms have been made in our commercial system ; so that, 
besides being the first to promulgate the true theory of commerce, 
we are now entitled to the praise of being the first to carry it into 
effect. No doubt our trade is still fettered by many vexatious 
restraints; but these will gradually disappear, according as ex¬ 
perience serves to disclose the benefits resulting from the changes 
already made, and the pernicious operation of the restrictions that 
are still allowed to continue. The petition now referred to will 
admirably illustrate the observations already made. It is as 
follows :— 

“ To the Honourable the Commons , tyc., the Petition of 
the Merchants of the City of London, 

“ Sheweth, 

“ That foreign commerce is eminently conducive to the wealth 
and prosperity of a country, by enabling it to import the com¬ 
modities for the production of which the soil, climate, capital, and 
industry of other countries are best calculated, and to export, in 
payment, those articles for which its own situation is better 
adapted. 

That freedom from restraint is calculated to give the utmost 
extension to foreign trade, and the best direction to the capital 
and industry of the country. 

“ That the maxim of buying in the cheapest market, and selling- 
in the dearest, which regulates every merchant im his individual 
dealings, is strictly applicable, as the best rule for the trade of 
the whole nation. 

“ That a policy founded on these principles would render the 
commerce of the world an interchange of mutual advantages, and 
diffuse an increase of wealth and enjoyments among the inhabi¬ 
tants of each state. 


176 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 

“ That, unfortunately, a policy the very reverse of this has been, 
and is, more or less, adopted and acted upon by the government of 
this and every other country; each trying to exclude the produc¬ 
tions of other countries, with the specious and well-meant design 
of encouraging its own productions : thus inflicting on the bulk of 
its subjects, who are consumers, the necessity of submitting to pri¬ 
vations in the quantity or quality of commodities ; and thus 
rendering what ought to be the source of mutual benefit and of 
harmony among states, a constantly recurring occasion of jealousy 
and hostility. 

“ That the prevailing prejudices in favour of the protective and 
restrictive system may be traced to the erroneous supposition, that 
every importation of foreign commodities occasions a diminution 
or discouragement of our own productions to the same extent: 
whereas it may be clearly shown, that although the particular de¬ 
scription of production which could not stand against unrestrained 
foreign competition would be discouraged, yet, as no importation 
could be continued for any length of time without a corresponding 
exportation, direct or indirect, there would be an encouragement, 
for the purpose of that exportation, of some other production 
to which our situation might be better suited; thus affording at 
least an equal, and probably a greater, and certainly a more bene¬ 
ficial, employment to our capital and labour. 

“ That of the numerous protective and prohibitory duties of our 
commercial code, it may be proved that, while all operate as a 
very heavy tax on the community at large, very few are of any ul¬ 
timate benefit to the classes in whose favour they were originally 
instituted, and none to the extent of the loss occasioned by them 
to other classes. 

u That among the other evils of the restrictive or protective 
system, not the least is, that the artificial protection of one branch 
of industry or source of production against foreign competition, is 
set up as a ground of claim by other branches for similar protec¬ 
tion ; so that if the reasoning upon which these restrictive or 
prohibitory regulations are founded, were followed out consistently, 
it would not stop short of excluding us from all foreign commerce 
whatsoever. And the same train of argument, which, with cor¬ 
responding prohibitions and protective duties, should exclude us 
from foreign trade, might be brought forward to justify the re¬ 
enactment of restrictions upon the interchange of productions 
(unconnected with public revenue) among the kingdoms com¬ 
posing the Union, or among the countries of the same kingdom. 

“ That an investigation of the effects of the restrictive system 
fct this time is peculiarly called for, as it may, in the opinion of 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


in 


your petitioners, lead to a strong presumption, that the distress 
which now so generally prevails, is considerably aggravated by 
that system; and that some relief may be obtained by the earliest 
practicable removal of such of the restraints as may be shown to 
be most injurious to the capital and industry of the community, 
and to be attended with no compensating benefit to the public 
revenue. 

“ That a declaration against the anti-commercial principles of 
our restrictive system is of the more importance at the present 
juncture: inasmuch as, in several instances of recent occurrence, 
the merchants and manufacturers of foreign countries have assailed 
their respective governments with applications for further protective 
or prohibitory duties and regulations, urging the example and 
authority of this country, against which they are almost exclusively 
directed, as a sanction for the policy of such measures. And cer¬ 
tainly, if the reasoning upon which our restrictions have been de¬ 
fended is worth anything, it will apply in behalf of the regulations 
of foreign states against us. They insist upon our superiority in 
capital and machinery, as we do upon their comparative exemption 
from taxation, and with equal foundation. 

“ That nothing could tend more to counteract the commercial 
hostility of -foreign states, than the adoption of a more enlight¬ 
ened and more conciliatory policy on the part of this country. 

“ That although, as a matter of mere diplomacy, it may some¬ 
times answer to hold the removal of particular prohibitions, or 
high duties, as depending upon corresponding concessions by other 
states in our favour, it does not follow that we should maintain 
our restrictions in cases where the desired concessions on their 
part cannot be obtained. Our restrictions would not be the less 
prejudicial to our own capital and industry, because other govern ¬ 
ments persisted in preserving impolitic regulations. 

“ That, upon the whole, the most liberal would prove to be the 
most politic course on such occasions. 

“ That, independent of the direct benefit to be derived by this 
country, on every occasion of such concession or relaxation, a 
great incidental object would be gained, by the recognition of a 
sound principle or standard, to which all subsequent arrangements 
might be referred ; and by the salutary influence wlrich a promul¬ 
gation of such just views, by the legislature and by the nation at 
large, could not fail to have on the policy of other states. 

“ That in thus declaring, as your petitioners do, their conviction 
of the impolicy and injustice of the restrictive system, and in de¬ 
siring every practicable relaxation of it, they have in view only 
such parts of it as arc not connected, or are only subordinately so, 

A A 




178 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


with the public revenue. As long as the necessity for the present 
amount of revenue subsists, your petitioners cannot expect so 
important a branch of it as the customs to be given up, or to be 
materially diminished, unless some substitute less objectionable be 
suggested. But it is against every restrictive regulation of trade, 
not essential to the revenue, against all duties merely protective 
from foreign competition, and against the excess of such duties as 
are partly for the purpose of revenue, and partly for that of pro¬ 
tection, that the prayer of the present petition is respectfully 
submitted to the wisdom of parliament. 

“ May it therefore,” &c. 


Section II.—Commercial Companies. 

In commerce or the arts, a company is a number of persons 
associated together for the purpose of carrying on some commer¬ 
cial or industrious undertaking. Companies have generally been 
divided into two great classes—exclusive or joint stock companies, 
and open or regulated companies. 

Exclusive or Joint Stock Companies. 

By this is meant a company having a certain amount of capital, 
divided into a greater or smaller number of transferable shares, 
managed for the common advantage of the shareholders by a body 
of directors chosen by and responsible to them. After the stock 
of a company of this sort has been subscribed, no one can enter 
it without previously purchasing one or more shares belonging to 
some of the existing members. The partners do nothing indi¬ 
vidually ; all their resolutions are taken in common, and are 
carried into effect by the directors and those whom they employ. 

According to the common law of England, all the partners in 
a joint stock company are jointly and individually liable, to the 
whole extent of their fortunes, for the debts of the company. 
They may make arrangements amongst themselves, limiting 
their obligations with respect to each other ; but unless established 
by an authority competent to set aside the general rule, they are all 
indefinitely responsible to the public. Parliament sometimes 
limits the responsibility of the shareholders in joint stock compa¬ 
nies established by statute, to the amount of the shares they 
respectively hold. Charters of incorporation granted by the 
crown were also, until lately, supposed naturally to have this 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


17.9 


effect; by the Act 6 Geo. IV. c. 96, the crown is empowered 
to grant charters of incorporation by which the members of cor¬ 
porate bodies may be made individually liable, to such extent, and 
subject to such regulations and restrictions, as may be deemed 
expedient. Hence charters are now frequently granted for the 
purpose merely of enabling companies to sue and be sued in courts 
of law, under the names of some of their office-bearers, without 
in any respect limiting the responsibility of the shareholders to 
the public. This limitation cannot be implied in a charter any more 
than in an act of parliament, and will be held not to exist unless 
it be distinctly set forth. 

The trade of a joint stock company is usually managed by a 
court of directors. This court indeed is frequently subject, in 
many respects, to the control of a general court of proprietors. 
But the greater part of these proprietors seldom pretend to 
understand any thing of the business of the company, and give 
themselves no trouble about it, but receive contentedly such half- 
yearly or yearly dividend as the directors think proper to make to 
them. This total exemption from trouble and risk, beyond a 
limited sum, encouraged many people to become adventurers, in 
joint stock companies, who would upon no account hazard their 
fortunes in any private copartnery. This has in some respects been 
found injurious, by encouraging a taste for speculation. The 
principal joint stock companies for foreign trade at present sub¬ 
sisting in Great Britain are, the South Sea and the East India 
companies ; to which may be added, though of very inferior mag¬ 
nitude, the HudsonVBay company. 

The South Sea Company .—During the long war with France 
in the reign of queen Anne, the payment of the sailors of the 
royal navy being neglected, they received tickets instead of money, 
and were frequently obliged by their necessities to sell these 
tickets to avaricious men at a discount of 40 and sometimes 50 
per cent. 

' By this and other means the debts of the nation unprovided 
for by parliament, and which amounted to £9,471,321, fell into 
the hands of these usurers; on which Mr. Harley, at that time 
chancellor of the exchequer, and afterwards earl of Oxford, pro¬ 
posed a scheme to allow the proprietors of these-debts and defi- 
ciences 6 per cent, per annum, and to incorporate them for the 
purpose of carrying on a trade to the South Sea ; and they were 
accordingly incorporated under the title of “ the governor and 
company of Merchants of Great Britain trading to the South 
Seas, and other parts of America, and for encouraging the fishery 
The company was established by act of parliament in the 9th of 


180 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


queen Anne, and vested in the sole trade to and from all lands and 
kingdoms on the east side of America, from the river Oronooko to 
the southernmost part of Terra del Fuego, and from thence to 
the northernmost part of America on the west side. 

In the year 1722, this company petitioned parliament to be 
allowed to divide their immense capital of more than cF83,800,000, 
the whole of which had been lent to government, into two equal 
parts: the one half, or upwards of £? 16,900,000 to be put 
upon the same footing with other government annuities. In 1733 
they again petitioned the parliament, that three-fourths of their 
trading stock might be turned into annuity stock, and only one- 
fourth remain as trading stock, or exposed to the hazards arising 
from the bad management of their directors. In 1748 an end 
was put to their trade in the Spanish West Indies, the remainder 
of their trading stock was turned into annuity stock, and the com¬ 
pany ceased in every respect to be a trading company. 

The annuity portion of the debt, amounting, on the 4th of 
January, 1830, to £10,144,584, is all that now remains of the 
capital of the once famous South Sea Company. The company 
having, as before stated, for a considerable time past, ceased to have 
any thing to do with trade, the functions of the directors are 
wholly restricted to the transfer of the company’s stock, and the 
payment of the dividends on it; both of which operations are 
performed at the South Sea House, and not at the Bank. The 
dividends on the old South Sea annuities are payable on the 5th 
of April and 10th of October; the dividends on the rest of the 
company’s stock are payable on the 5th of January and 5th of 
July. 

East India Company .—The first, or as it is called, the old 
East India Company, was established by a charter from queen 
Elizabeth in 1600, which continued till the year 1698 ; a proposal 
was then made by a number of merchants to parliament for ad¬ 
vancing the sum of £2,000,000 to government, on condition of 
erecting the subscribers into a new East India Company with ex¬ 
clusive privileges. The old company endeavoured to prevent the 
appearance of such a formidable rival, by offering government 
£700,000 nearly the amount of their capital at that time ; but 
such were the exigencies of the state, that the larger sum, though 
at eight per cent, interest, was preferred to the smaller at one half 
the expense. Thus were two East India companies erected in 
the same kingdom, which could not but be very prejudicial to each 
other. In 1702, however, their differences w^ere adjusted, and the 
two companies were,- in some measure, united by an indenture 
tripartite, to which the queen was the third party; and, in 1708, 


COMMERCE TRADE, ETC. 


181 


they were perfectly consolidated into one company by tlieir present 
name of “the United Company of Merchants trading to the 
blast Indies. 11 The authority of parliament was soon after inter¬ 
posed to give effect to this agreement. The United Company 
engaged to advance £ 1,200,000 to government without interest, 
which, as a previous advance had been made of £2,000,000 at 8 per 
cent., made the total sum due to them by the public £3,200,000 
bearing interest at 5 per cent.; and government agreed to ratify 
the terms of their agreement, and to extend the charter to the 
25th of March, 1726, with three years’ notice. 

For some years after the re-establishment of the company, it 
continued to prosecute its efforts to consolidate and extend its 
commerce. But the unsettled state of the Mogul empire, coupled 
with the determination of the company to establish factories in 
every convenient situation, exposed their affairs to perpetual vicis¬ 
situdes. Nevertheless tlieir charter was subsequently renewed at 
various periods. By accounts from India in the year 1768 their 
revenue, clear of all deductions and military charges, was stated 
at £2,048,747. At the same time they were said to possess 
another revenue, arising partly from lands, but chiefly from the 
customs established at their different settlements, amounting to 
about £439,000. The profits of their trade, too, according to 
the evidence of their chairman before the house of commons, 
amounted to at least £400,000 per annum. Notwithstanding 
this apparent wealth, however, the affairs of the company from 
this time fell into disorder; insomuch that in 1773, tlieir debts 
were augmented by several causes to the amount of more than 
£1,200,000. Thus they were obliged to apply to government 
for assistance. In 1783, after much discussion, it was agreed that 
the company should enjoy their exclusive privileges to the 1st of 
March, 1794, then to cease and determine, upon the former con¬ 
ditions of three years 1 previous notice, and the repayment of all 
sums due to them. 

In the beginning of 1793 the subject of laying open the trade 
to India was again discussed, and though it was not thought 
proper to risk the loss and confusion which must unavoidably 
attend an attempt to take such an immense concern out of the 
hands in which it had so long continued, a stipulation was made 
in the agreement for the renewal of this charter, that such regula¬ 
tions should be adopted as to admit of a free exportation by 
D*:ivate persons on their own account, of any goods of the growth, 
produce, or manufacture of Great Britain or Ireland ; and of a 
free importation of such sorts of the raw materials of the East 
Indies as are used in the manufactures of Great Britain osr 


182 YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 

Ireland ; that the company should be obliged to provide shipping 
for the carriage of the private trade, at as low freight as it could 
be furnished by private merchants ; and that they should license 
a proper number of agents to reside at the company’s settlements, 
under their protection, for the management of the private trade. 
On these conditions the company’s term in the exclusive trade was 
enlarged for twenty years, or to the 1st of March 1814, with the 
former proviso, that if, after the expiration of tnis term, their 
right to the sole trade should cease, in consequence' of three years’ 
previous notice being given by parliament, and tho icpayment of 
such sums as should be then due from the public, they should 
continue a corporation, with power to carry on a free trade in 
common with other persons. 

For some years previous to the termination of the company’s 
charter, the conviction had been gaining ground among all classes, 
that the trade to the East was capable of being very greatly ex¬ 
tended ; and that it was solely owing to the want of enterprise 
and competition, occasioned by its being subjected to a monopoly, 
that it was confined within such narrow limits. Verv great efforts 
were consequently made by the manufacturing and commercial 
interests to have the monopoly set aside, and the trade to the 
East thrown open. The company vigorously resisted these pre¬ 
tensions ; and had interest enough to procure a prolongation of 
the privilege of carrying on an extensive trade to China, to the 
10th of April, 1831, with three years’ notice ; the government of 
India being continued in their hands for the same period. For¬ 
tunately, however, the trade to India was opened, under certain 
conditions, to the public. The principal of these conditions were, 
that private individuals should trade, directly only, with the pre¬ 
sidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and the port of 
Penang; that the vessels fitted out by them should not be under 
850 tons burden; and that they should abstain, unless permitted 
by the company or the Board of Control, from engaging in the 
carrying trade of India, or in the trade between India and China. 
And yet, in despite of these disadvantages, such is the energy of 
individual enterprise, as compared with monopoly, that the private 
traders gained an almost immediate ascendency over the East 
India Company, and in a very short time, more than trebled our 
trade with India. 

When the question as to the renewal of the charter came again 
to be discussed in 1832 and 1833, the company had no reasonable 
objection to urge against their being deprived of the privilege of 
trading, and the act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85, for continuing the 
charter till 1854, has terminated the company’s commercial cha 


183 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 

raeter; by enacting that the company's trade to China should 
cease on the 22d of April, 1834, and that the company should, 
as soon as possible after that date, dispose of their stocks on hand, 
and close their commercial business. 

The trade to India, China, and the East generally, is now 
open to free and unfettered mercantile enterprise. What has been 
effected since the opening of the trade to India in 1814, notwith¬ 
standing the many drawbacks under which it has laboured, is 
an earnest of what may be anticipated from the new arrangements. 

Under this act, the functions of the East India Company are 
wholly political. She is to continue to govern India, with the 
concurrence and under the supervision of the Board of Control, 
till the 30th of April, 1854. All the real and personal property 
belonging to the company on the 22d of April, 1834, is vested in 
the crown, and was to be held or managed by the company in 
trust for the same, subject, of course, to all claims, debts, con¬ 
tracts, &c. already in existence, or that might hereafter be brought 
into existence by competent authority. 

Hudsons Bay Company .—This company was incorporated by 
charter in 1670; but as it was not confirmed by parliament, they 
have no legal power to exclude any British subjects from trading 
in the same countries as themselves. The commerce carried on 
by them is not of great extent, as it seldom employs above four 
or five ships of about 300 tons each. The articles exported by 
them are coarse duffle cloth, or blanketing, guns, pistols, sword- 
blades, hatchets, powder and shot, spirits, &c.; the imports consist 
of large quantities of beaver-skins and peltry of all kinds, bed- 
feathers, quilts, castoreum, whalfins, oil, and a few smaller articles. 

Open or Regulated Companies. 

The affairs of these companies or associations are managed by 
directors appointed by the members. They do not, however, 
possess a common or joint stock. Each individual pays a fine upon 
entering into the company, and most commonly an annual con¬ 
tribution : a duty applicable to the business of the company is also 
sometimes charged upon the goods imported and exported from 
and to the countries with which they trade. A regulated com¬ 
pany is, in fact, a device for making those engaged in a particular 
branch of trade bear the public or political expenses incident 
to it, a t the same time that it leaves them to conduct their own 
business, with their own capital, and in their own way. The 
African, the Turkey, or Levant, and some other branches of trade, 
were for a long time conducted by open or regulated companies. 


184 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


These, however, have been recently abolished : the African com¬ 
pany, by the act 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 28, and the Levant company 
by the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 3M. 

The regulated companies for foreign commerce, which at present 
subsist in great Britian, are, the Hamburgh company, the Russia 
company, and the Eastland company. 

The Hamburgh Company is the oldest trading establishment in 
the kingdom; though not always known by that name, nor re¬ 
strained to those narrow bounds under which it is now confined. 
It was first called the company of Merchants trading to Calais, 
Holland, Zealand, Brabant, and Flanders: then it acquired the 
general title of Merchant-adventurers of England, as being com¬ 
posed of all the English merchants who traded to the Low- 
countries, the Baltic, and the German ocean. Lastly, it was called 
the company of Merchant-adventurers of England trading to 
Hamburgh. This company was first incorporated by Edward I. 
in 129(3: and their privileges have been confirmed by many of 
his successors. The revolutions which happened in the Low- 
countries towards the end of the 16th century, and which laid the 
foundation of the republic of Holland, having hindered the com¬ 
pany from continuing their commerce with their ancient freedom, 
they were obliged to turn it almost wholly to the side of Ham¬ 
burgh, and the cities on the German ocean ; from which the name 
was changed to that of the Hamburgh company, though the 
ancient title of Merchant-adventurers is still retained in all their 
writings. 

The Russian Company was first projected towards the end of 
the reign of king Edward VI. and executed in the first and second 
years of Philip and Mary; but had not its perfection till its 
charter was confirmed by act of parliament, under queen Elizabeth, 
in 1566. It had its rise from certain adventurers, who were sent 
in three vessels on the discovery of new countries, and to find out 
a north-east passage to China: these, falling into the White Sea, 
and making up to the port of Archangel, were exceedingly well re¬ 
ceived by the Muscovites ; and at their return, solicited letters 
patent to secure themselves the commerce of Russia, for which 
they had formed an association. This company subsisted with re¬ 
putation almost a whole century, till the time of the civil wars. 
It is said, the czar then reigning hearing of the death of king 
Chari es I., ordered all the English in his states to be expelled; 
of which the Dutch taking advantage, settled in their room. After 
the Restoration the remains of the company re-established part of 
their commerce at Archangel, but never with the same success as 
before, the Russians being now well accustomed to the Dutch 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


185 


merchants and merchandise. The company subsists still, under 
the direction of a governor, four consuls, and assistants; and by 
the 10th and 11th of William III. c. 6, the fine for admission 
was reduced to £5 . 

The Eastland Company was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth. 
Its charter is dated in the year 1579. By the first article the 
company is erected into a body politic, under the title of the 
company of Merchants of the East; to consist of Englishmen, all 
real merchants, who have exercised the business thereof, and 
trafficked through the Sound, before the year 1568, into Norway, 
Sweden, Poland, Livonia, Prussia, Pomerania, &c. excepting 
Narva, Muscovy, and its dependencies. Most of the remaining 
articles grant them the usual prerogatives of such companies ; as 
a seal, governor, courts, laws, &c. 

Civic Companies and Corporations. 

Exclusive of the companies previously mentioned, a number 
of ancient companies or corporations exist in this and most 
other European countries, the members of which enjoy certain 
political as well as commercial privileges. When the feudal 
system began to be subverted by the establishment of good 
order and regular government in the towns, the inhabitants were 
divided into certain trades or corporations, by which the magis¬ 
trates and other functionaries were chosen. The members of these 
trades or corporations, partly to enhance the value of their pri¬ 
vileges, and partly to provide a resource, in case of adversity, for 
themselves, acquired or usurped the power of enacting by-laws re¬ 
gulating the admission of new members, and at the same time set 
about providing a fund for the support of such as accident or mis¬ 
fortune might reduce to a state of indigence. For a lengthened 
period these privileges and regulations were very oppressive. 
Within the last century, however, their influence has been pro¬ 
gressively diminishing, and by the passing of the municipal reform 
act their exclusive privileges have been abolished every where 
except in London. 

The following are the principal companies of the metropolis 
the Mercers 1 was incorporated in the 17th of King Richard II. 
ann. 1893; the Grocers’, in the 20th Edward III. ann. 1345 ; 
the Drapers 1 , in the 17th Henry VI, ann. 1430 ; the Fishmongers 1 , 
in the 28th of Henry VIII. ann. 1536 ; the Goldsmiths 1 , in the 
16th of Richard II. ann. 1392; the Skinners 1 , in the first of 
Edward III. ann. 1327,* the Merchant-taylors 1 , in the 17th 
Henry VII. ann. 1501 ; the Haberdashers 1 , or Hurre-rs’, in 26th 


186 


YOUNG MAN^ COMPANION. 


Henry VI. ann. 1447, and 17th. Henry VII. ann. 1501 ; the 
Salters', in 20th Henry VIII. ann. 1530; the Ironmongers’, in 
3d Edward IV. ann. 1462; the Vintners', in the reign of Edward 
III. and 15th Henry VI; and the Clothiers', or Cloth-workers’, 
in 22d Henry VIII. 

Besides these there are other very considerable ones; as the 
dyers, brewers, leather-sellers, pewterers, barbers, surgeons, ar 
mourers, white-bakers, wax-chandlers, cutlers, girdlers, butchers, 
saddlers, carpenters, cordwainers, painters, curriers, masons, plum¬ 
bers, innholders, founders, embroiderers, poulterers, cooks, coopers, 
bricklayers, and tilers; also bowers, fletchers, blacksmiths, joiners, 
plasterers, weavers, fruiterers, scriveners, bottle-makers, and horners; 
likewise stationers, marblers, wool-packers, farriers, paviors, lori- 
mers or loriners, tallow-chandlers, brown-bakers, wood-mongers, 
upholsterers, turners, glaziers, clerks, watermen, apothecaries, and 
throwsters. 


Section III. —Banks. 

Banks are establishments intended to serve for a safe custody 
of money ; to facilitate its payment by one individual to another; 
and, sometimes, for the accommodation of the public with loans. 
These are commonly divided into two great classes ; banks of de¬ 
posit, and banks of circulation. This division is not, however, a 
very distinct one ; for there is no bank of deposit that is not, at 
the same time, a bank of circulation, and few or no banks of cir¬ 
culation that are not also banks of deposit. But the term banks 
of deposit is meant to designate those which keep the money of 
individuals and circulate it only; while the term banks of circu¬ 
lation is applied to those which do not thus confine their circulation, 
but issue notes of their own, payable on demand. The Bank of 
England is the principal bank of circulation in the empire; but it, 
as well as the private banks of England and Scotland that issue 
notes, is also a bank of deposit. The private banking establish¬ 
ments in London do not issue notes, and there are many similar 
establishments in other parts of the country. 

The establishment of banks has contributed, in no ordinary 
degree, to give security and facility to all sorts of commercial 
transactions. They afford safe and convenient places of deposit 
for the money that would otherwise have to be kept, at a con¬ 
siderable risk, in private houses. They also prevent, in a great 
measure, the necessity of carrying money from place to place 
to make payments, and enable them to be made in the most 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


1 <87 


convenient and least expensive manner. A merchant or tradesman 
in London, for example, who employs a banker, keeps but very 
little money in his own hands, making all his considerable pay¬ 
ments by drafts or checks on his banker; and he also sends the 
various checks, bills, or drafts, payable to himself in London, to his 
bankers before they become due. By this means he saves the 
trouble and inconvenience of counting sums of money, and avoids 
the losses he would otherwise be liable to, and would no doubt oc¬ 
casionally incur, from receiving coins or notes not genuine. Perhaps, 
however, the great advantage derived by the merchant or tradesman 
from the employment of a banker, consists in its relieving him 
from all trouble in respect to the presentation for payment of due 
bills and drafts. The moment these are transferred to the banker, 
they are at his risk. And if he either neglect to present them 
when due, or to have them properly noted in the event of their 
not being paid, he has to answer for the consequences. 

London banking houses are chiefly for deposit. When an 
account is opened in such a house, that is, when a person pays in 
money, to be drawn out as may be necessary, he is furnished with 
a customer’s book ; on the left hand page the house is entered Dr. 
for the sum paid in, and on the right, it is Cr. for the sums he 
draws out. In this book the customer never writes himself, but 
what he pays in is entered by the banker or his clerk, which serves 
as a receipt; and when the customer wishes to know the state of 
his accounts at the banker’s, or to compare it with his own private 
note of monies drawn, he gives in his book to be written up or 
settled. The books generally used in a banking-house are the 
money-book, in which the cashier enters his receipts and payments 
of money; the waste-book in which both money and paper, re¬ 
ceived and paid, are particularly specified : in some houses, how¬ 
ever, a book is kept for paper only, called the goldsmith’s book. 
The cash-book follows, containing all the sums of both money and 
paper paid and received. From this book the ledger is posted, 
in which each customer is debited from the sums he has drawn 
out, and credited for those he has paid in. The customer’s book 
is written up from his drafts paid, cancelled, and checked by the 
account in the ledger. Besides these books, bankers keep others, 
as the in-bill book, for bills paid in by customers ; the out-bill 
book, for bills sent out for acceptance or payment; the check 
bill-book, for bills to be brought together that become due on the 
same day; and the discount bill-book, for all bills discounted : 
a discount ledger is also kept to show the state of every discount 
operation. When to this variety of books are added the daily, 
yearly, and other balances, a banker seems to possess every 


188 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


possible means for proving and checking his accounts, so that with 
common care no disorder can ensue. • The advantage arising to 
the London banker (who gives no interest for money placed in his 
hands for a temporary purpose) chiefly consists in laying out part 
of the money on good securities, such as in the stocks, or other 
government paper; and in discounting bills, by which the most 
essential support is afforded to trade and commerce. Besides this, 
bankers are of great use to merchants, by undertaking the manage¬ 
ment of their bills, and other receipts and payments by which 
the business of the counting-house is materially lessened : and 
this important branch of business is conducted without any charge 
and with the strictest accuracy. 

Country bankers also take charge of other men’s money, dis¬ 
count bills, &c.; but in other respects they differ from London 
bankers. Some country bankers pay interest for money placed 
with them, on condition of receiving certain notices before it be 
drawn out; others keep a neutral interest account, and charge a 
commission on their payments. Country bankers issue their own 
notes, (which is not done in London,) payable to bearer on de¬ 
mand ; most of them being made payable at some London house 
where the country banker keeps an account like that of any other 
private customer. 

Bank of England .—This great establishment, which has long 
been the principal bank of deposit and circulation, not in this 
country only, but in Europe, was founded in 1694. Its principal 
projector was Mr. William Paterson, an enterprising and intelli¬ 
gent Scotch gentleman, who was afterwards engaged in the ill-fated 
colony at Darien. Government being at the time much distressed 
for want of money, partly from the defects and abuses in the 
system of taxation, and partly from the difficulty of borrowing, 
because of the supposed instability of the revolutionary establish¬ 
ment, the Bank grew out of a loan of £1,200,000. for the public 
service, the subscribers, besides receiving eight per cent, on the 
sum advanced, as interest, and £4,000. a year as the expense of 
management, in all £100,000. a year, were incorporated into a 
society, denominated the Governor and Company of the Bank of 
England : the charter is dated 27th of July, 1694. 

The corporation is prohibited from engaging in any sort of 
commercial undertaking other than dealing in bills of exchange, 
and in gold and silver. It is authorised to advance money upon 
the security of goods or merchandize pledged to it; and to sell 
by public auction, all such as are not redeemed within a specified 
time. It was also enacted, in the same year in which the bank 
was established, bv statute 6 William & Mary, c. 20., that the 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


189 


bank, “ shall not deal in any goods wares or merchandise (except 
bullion), or purchase any lands or revenues belonging to the crown, 
or advance or lend to their majesties their heirs or successors, any 
sum or sums of money by way of loan or anticipation, or any 
part or parts branch or branches fund or funds of the reveuue 
now granted or belonging, or hereafter to be granted to their 
majesties their heirs and successors, other than such fund or funds 
part or parts branch or branches of the said revenue only, on 
which a credit of loan is or shall be granted by parliament.’” 
And in 1697 it was enacted that the “ common capital or principal 
stock, and also the real fund of the governor and company, or any 
profit or produce to be made thereof or arising thereby, shall be 
exempted from any rates taxes assessments or impositions what¬ 
ever, during the continuance of the bank ; and that all the profit 
benefit and advantage from time to time arising out of the manage¬ 
ment of the said corporation, shall be applied to the uses of all 
the members of the said corporation of the governor and company 
of the Bank of England, rateably and in proportion to each 
member’s part share, and interest in the common capital and prin¬ 
cipal stock of the said governor and company hereby established.'” 

The charter of the Bank of England, when first granted, was 
to continue for eleven years certain, or till a year’s notice after 
the 1st of August, 1705. The charter was further prolonged in 
1697. In 1708, the Bank having advanced £400,000 for the 
public service, without interest, the exclusive privileges of the 
corporation were prolonged till 1733. And in consequence of 
various advances made at different times, the exclusive privileges 
of the Bank have been continued by successive renewals, till a 
year’s notice, after the 1st of August 1855, under the proviso 
that they may be cancelled on a year’s notice to that effect being 
given on the 1st of August, 1845. 

The Bank of England has been frequently affected by panics 
amongst the holders of its notes. In 1745 the alarm occasioned 
by the advance of the Highlanders under the Pretender as far as 
Derby, led to a run upon the Bank, and during the tremendous 
riots in June 1780, the Bank incurred considerable danger. The 
year 1797 is, however, the most important epoch in the recent 
history of the Bank. Owing partly to events connected with 
the war in which we were then engaged—to loans to the Emperor 
of Germany—to bills drawn on the treasury at home by the 
British agents abroad—and partly, and chiefly, perhaps, to ad¬ 
vances most unwillingly made by the Bank to government, which 
prevented the directors from having a sufficient control over 
their issue,—the exchanges became unfavourable in 1795, and in 


190 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 

that, and the following year, large sums in specie were drawn from 
the Bank. In the latter end of 1796 and beginning of 1797, 
considerable apprehensions were entertained of invasion, and 
rumours were propagated of descents having been actually made 
on the coast. In consequence of the fears that were thus excited, 
runs were made on the provincial banks in different parts of the 
country ; and some of them having failed, the panic became 
general, and extended itself to London. Demands for cash 
poured in upon the Bank from all quarters; and on Saturday, 
the 25th of February 1797, she had only £1,272,000 of cash 
and bullion in her coffers, with every prospect of a violent run 
taking place on the following Monday. In this emergency an 
order in council was issued on Sunday, the 26th, prohibiting the 
directors from paying their notes in cash until the sense of par¬ 
liament had been taken on the subject. And after parliament 
met, and the measure had been much discussed, it was agreed to 
continue the restriction till six months after the signature of a 
definitive treaty of peace. As soon as the order in council pro¬ 
hibiting payments in cash appeared, a meeting of the principal 
bankers, merchants, traders, kc. of the metropolis, was held at 
the Mansion-house, when a resolution was agreed to, and very 
numerously signed, pledging, as had been done in 1745, those 
present to accept, and to use every means in their power to 
cause Bank notes to be accepted, as cash in all transactions. This 
resolution tended to allay the apprehensions that the restriction 
had excited. Parliament being sitting at the time, a committee 
was immediately appointed to examine into the affairs of the 
Bank ; and their report put to rest whatever doubts might have 
been entertained with respect to the solvency of the establish¬ 
ment, by showing that at the moment when the order in council 
appeared, the Bank was possessed of property to the amount 
of £15,513, 90, after all claims upon it had been deducted. 

In 1814, 1815, and 1816, no fewer than 240 country banks 
stopped payment; and eighty-nine commissions of bankruptcy 
were issued against these establishments, being at the rate of one 
commission against every ten an.d a half of the total number of 
banks existing in 1813. The great reduction that had been thus 
suddenly and violently brought about in the quantity of country 
bank paper, by extending the field for the circulation of Bank of 
England paper, raised its value in 1817 nearly to a par with gold. 
The return to cash payments being thus facilitated, it was fixed, 
in 1819, by the act 59 Geo. III. c. 78, commonly called Mr. Peel’s 
Act, that they should take place in 1823. But to prevent anv 
further over-issue, it was enacted that the Bank should be obliged, 

7 O' 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


191 


during tlie interval from the passing of the last act till the return 
to specie payment, to pay her notes, if required, in bars of 
standard bullion of not less than sixty ounces weight. This plan 
was not, however, acted upon during the period allowed by law; 
for a large amount of gold having been accumulated at the Bank, 
the directors preferred recommencing specie payments on the 
1st of May, 1821. 

The Bank of England in its commercial operations is similar 
to private banks : it takes charge of money, discounts bills ; it 
likewise issues its own notes : it also acts as banker and agent for 
government, in receiving revenues and paying dividends of stocks 
and other public debts : it also deals in gold and silver and foreign 
coins. An account is opened with the bank in the same w r ay as 
with a private banker, except that in it no cash account is begun 
with less than £500; nor any discount account opened but by 
the approbation of the court of directors, and every bill discounted 
or cashed must have on it two approved names, of persons residing 
in or near London. The business is under the management of 
a governor, deputy governor, and twenty*four directors, annually 
chosen from among the proprietors; and the qualification of a 
proprietor to vote is, to have been possessed of £500 bank stock, 
for six months previous to the time of voting. 

In England there is the one great national bank already de¬ 
scribed, with about seventy banking houses in London, and four 
hundred in the country. By the joint operation of this system 
of banks the trade and commerce of the nation is carried on, and 
ultimately almost always in the paper of th.e bank of England. 
For since the bank was restricted from paying in specie, its paper, 
though not made absolutely a legal tender, (that is, though no 
man can be absolutely compelled to accept it as payment in the 
place of coin) answers all the purposes of cash, and it is so called 
in the books of bankers and merchants. 

Scotland contains two public banks, the bank of Scotland, and 
the Koval bank, with many private banks, all nearly on the same 
principle of English country banks. 

Ireland possesses one public bank, the bank of Ireland, and 
many private banks similar to those above described. 

Foreign banks, such as those of Amsterdam, Berlin, Copen¬ 
hagen, Hamburgh, Venice, Vienna, &c. are called banks of deposit, 
because the money placed in them is sunk, and never drawn out, 
but transferred in payments, from one person to another, like stock 
in the funds of this country. Much of the business of foreign 
nankers consists in drawing, negotiating, and discounting bills of 
exchange. 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


192 


Suction IV.—The Public Funds. 

This term was originally applied to the taxes appropriated by 
parliament to the support of civil government, and the payment 
of the principal and interest of money borrowed for public service. 
But the term is now more commonly used for those immense 
sums which have from time to time been lent to government, and 
which constitute the national debt; for which the lenders, or their 
assignees, receive interest from revenues allotted for that purpose. 
The practice of funding was introduced by the Venetians and 
Genoese in the sixteenth century, and in some form or other has 
been adopted since by most of the nations in Europe. 

The establishment of the funds was introduced in Great 
Britain at the revolution ; and has since been gradually enlarged, 
and carried to an amazing extent. When a greater sum has been 
required for the annual expense than could easily be supplied by 
annual taxes, the government have proposed terms to their own 
subjects, or foreigners, for obtaining an advance of money by 
mortgaging the revenue of future years for their indemnification. 
This mortgage may either be for a limited period or perpetual. 
If the sum allotted annually for the benefit of those who advance 
the money, be considerably greater than the interest of the sum 
advanced, they may agree to accept such allowance, for a limited 
time, as a full equivalent. Thus they may either agree for a 
casual produce of the revenue assigned, or a life annuity for a 
greater or less number of years; or a life annuity to themselves 
or nominees ; or an annuity for two or more lives; or an annuity 
with the benefit of survivorship, called a tontine, in which scheme, 
the whole sum to which the original annuitants were entitled, con¬ 
tinues to be distributed among the survivors. Although the debts 
thus contracted by government are seldom paid for a long term of 
years, yet any creditor of the public may obtain money for what is 
due to him, when he pleases, by transferring his property in the 
funds to another ; and regular methods are appointed for transact¬ 
ing these transfers in an easy manner. By means of this, the 
stocks become a kind of circulating capital; and have the same 
effect, in some respects, as the circulating money in the nation. 
When a stockholder transfers his share, he may sometimes be able 
to obtain a greater price than the original value, and at other times 
be obliged to accept of a less one. The value of the funds 
depends on the proportion between the interest they bear, and the 
benefit which may be obtained by applying the money to other 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


* 



purposes. It is influenced by the plenty or scarcity of money, 
and by the quantity of the public debt; and it impaired by 
any event which threatens the safety, or weakens the credit, of 
the government. The funds, therefore, in this view of them, 
may be considered as an index of the public mind, by which, 
cceteris paribus , the prosperity of the nation may be estimated. 

The following are the principal funds, which have been esta¬ 
blished at different periods:—The Aggregate Fund, which was 
commenced in the year 1715, and had this name given to it, 
because it consisted of a great variety of taxes, and surpluses of 
taxes, which were in that year consolidated, and given as the 
security for discharging the interest and principal of all the 
Exchequer bills then outstanding.—The South Sea Fund was 
established in 1716, and was so called because appropriated to pay 
the interest and allowance for management on the capital of the 
South Sea Company.—The General Fund was also established in 
1716, by making perpetual various duties which had been granted 
for the term of thirty-two years, and consolidating them, with some 
other duties, into one fund.—The Sinking Fund consists of the 
surpluses of the three funds just mentioned, whenever the pro¬ 
duce of the taxes composing them should be greater than the 
charges upon them. The act of parliament by which this was 
established, expressly ordained that it should be applied to the 
discharge of the public debt, and to or for none other use, intent, 
or purpose whatsoever; yet, in the course of a few years, many 
encroachments were made upon it, and it became at most a mere 
nominal distinction, the whole produce of it being frequently taken 
towards the supplies of the current year. An act of parliament 
was afterwards passed, which directed, that in all future loans an 
additional sum of \L per cent, over and above the annual interest, 
should be raised by taxes towards redeeming the principal; and so 
enormous has been the expenditure since the passing of that act, that 
this additional sum amounted to several millions annually, which 
with the other sums appropriated to the purpose, were employed 
in the puichase of stock, and in liquidation of the national debt. 
Notwithstanding which, however, it has continued to increase; and 
the Sinking Fund has frequently been appropriated to the immedi¬ 
ate necessities of the revenue, almost extinguishing the hope that 
its grand object in relieving the public burdens will ever be ac¬ 
complished. 

The Consolidated Fund was established in consequence of a 
new arrangement of the public accounts in 1786, when the whole 
of the public revenue (except the annual grants) was included 
under this general head. Out of this fund are paid the interest 

c c 


194 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


and expense of management of all the public debts, the interest 
on Exchequer bills, the civil list, pensions to the royal family, with 
other salaries and allowances to various public officers ; and some 
miscellaneous annual expenses. The surplus of the produce of 
the fund, after satisfying all these charges, is annually granted by 
parliament as part of the ways and means for raising the supplies 
voted. A small part of the public debt consists of annuities for a 
certain term of years, commonly called longer short annuities; there 
are also some life and tontine annuities still existing; but the 
whole of the terminable annuities bear a very small proportion 
to the permanent debts. The perpetual annuities are distinguished 
according to the rate of interest they pay, or the time or purpose 
of their creation ; and when, by a new loan, government contracts 
an additional debt, bearing a certain fixed interest, and the produce 
of the taxes imposed for payment of the interest of such new debt 
being carried to the fund established for paying the interest of the 
former capital, the old and new debts are consolidated, and the 
whole interest made payable out of the general produce of the 
fund : hence we have three or four per cent, consolidated annuities, 
according to the rate of interest payable on the capital. The 
interest on all the public debts was formerly paid at the Exchequer ; 
but the Bank being found a much more convenient place for this 
purpose, nearly the whole is now payable there ; the company re¬ 
ceiving a certain allowance from government for managing all 
business relative to the public funds. 

The principal denominations of the funds transferable at the 
Bank of England, &c., and the times when the interest or dividend 
becomes due, are as follow :— 


FUNDS. 


Consolidated three per cent, annuities. 

Three per cent, annuities, 1726 . 

Three and a half per cent, annuities, new . . 
Annuities ending January 1860 . 


Jan. 6, and 
July 5. 


Bank Stock., . . 

Reduced three per cent, annuities. 

Reduced three and a half per cent, annuities 
Three and a half per cent, annuities, 1818 . 

Annuities ending October 1859 . 

Long annuities. 



April 5, and 
f Oct. 10. 











COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


195 


TRANSFERABLE AT THE SOUTH SEA HOUSE. 

South Sea Stock. 

New South Sea annuities 
Three per cent, annuities 

Old South Sea Annuities. April 5, & Oct. 10. 


I Jan. 5, and 
f July 5. 


Besides the above, there are several foreign funds, the trails* 
actions of which are carried on at the Stock Exchange, on the same 
general principles as the English funds ; as the Spanish, Portu¬ 
guese, Brazilian, &c.; but the interest of some of these is very 
irregularly paid. 

The above information may be useful in forming an estimate 
of the magnitude and importance of the commercial transactions 
of Great Britain. 

In carrying on these affairs in any establishment, besides a know¬ 
ledge of the principles laid down in Sect. I., the greatest precision 
is needful as to the mode of keeping accounts, &c. A few useful 
hints on this subject, as well as an account of some of the principal 
usages in connexion with it, are subjoined. 


Section V.— Book-keeping. 


A merchant's books should exhibit the true state of his affairs ; 
they should show the particular success of each transaction, as well 
as the general result of the whole ; and should afford a correct and 
ready information upon every subject, for which they may be con¬ 
sulted. Books may be kept either by single or double entry. 
Single entry is chiefly us ad in retail business. It is the most 
simple and concise method of book-keeping, but not the most 
perfect, being defective in some essential particulars. Double 
entry is used in wholesale and mercantile affairs, whence it is called 
merchants accounts. This method is universally preferred in ex¬ 
tensive commerce, being the most comprehensive in its principles, 
and the most certain in its conclusions. 






YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


196 




SINGLE ENTRIl. 

In books of single entry, only such articles are entered as arc 
bought or sold on credit: no account being kept of those bought 
or sold for ready money, or other immediate payment. The con¬ 
sequence of this is, that the books can furnish no complete state¬ 
ment of the trader’s concerns, unless assisted by taking the stock 
of goods remaining unsold, and so calculating the amount of gain 
or loss on his transactions. In keeping accounts by single entry, 
two books are essential, the day-book and the ledger ; to these 
are sometimes now added a cash-book, bill-book, and ledger, for 
goods bought. 


Day-Book. —The day-book, or, as it is sometimes called, the 
waste-book, should be ruled with three lines for the pounds, shil¬ 
lings, and pence, and one marginal line for the folio of the ledger, 
or cash-book ; the day of the week, month, and year to be in¬ 
serted, each day in which any business is done, in the middle of 
the page. In the day-book should be entered all goods sold and 
not paid for, with the name of the parties to whom it is sold, in 
the following manner :— 


3 

r 

Monday , Jan. 1, 1840. 

Mr. J. Crawford, High Street. 

6 lb. fine black Tea, at - - - 7s. 6d. 

\cwt. Sugar, at ----- 112s. 

£ 

2 

1 

s. 

5 

8 

d. 

0 

0 

0 

3 

13 

> 

Tuesday , Jan. 2, 1840. 





Messrs. Cole & Brown, Ship Lane. 




2 

30 pieces fine Irish, 71 5 yds. at - 4s. 

143 

0 

0 


Friday, Jan. 5, 1840. 





Mrs. Williams, Broad Street. 




3 

| 6 lb. Malagas, at - - - 12 d. 

0 

6 

0 


6 lb. Currants, at ----- 13c?. 

0 

6 

6 

i .. __ 

0 

12 

6 

























COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 19*7 

Ledger. —From the day-book, every article must be posted 
into the ledger; and as in the day-book, the head or title of each 
is the day of the week, month, and year; so in the ledger, the 
head cr title of every article is the name of the person or firm to 
whom it was sold. It must be ruled with two separate divisions, 
the left hand for debtor, and the right for creditor ; each division 
to contain a narrow column for the day of the month on the left 
hand, then leaving a space for the articles sold, draw a line for the 
folio of the day-book, or cash-book, and to the right of each divi¬ 
sion, three lines for pounds, shillings, and pence. In posting 
from the day-book into the ledger, the name of the person or firm 
must be first written in a large hand at the head of the page ; the 
day of the month, &c. in the first column ; the goods sold, in the 
space between that and the lines of the folio, and the amount 
carried out to the column for that purpose. 


1 Dr. Mr. J. Crawford, High Street. Cr. 


1840. 
Jan: 1. 

To goods. 

3 

£ 

3 

s. 

13 

d. 

0 

1840. 
Jan. 16. 

By cash . 

1 

£ 

3 

s. 

13 

d. 

0 

2 Di 

\ Messrs. Cole & Brown, Ship Lane. 



Cr 

1840. 



£ 

s. 

d. 

1840. 



£ 

s. 

d. 

Jan. 2. 

I 

To goods . 

3 

143 

0 

0 

Feb. 18. 

By cash . 

1 

50 

0 

0 


3 Dr. Mrs. Williams, Broad Street. Cr 


1840. 



£ 

s. 

d. 

1840. 



£ 

s. 

d. 

Jan. 5. 

To goods . 

3 

0 

12 

6 

Mar. 4. 

By cash . 

1 

!o 

i 

12 

6 




i 






l 

m r 


























































198 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


Cash-Book. —The cash-book must be ruled in the same 
manner as the ledger, and must contain a debtor and creditor 
account; the cash must be made debtor for all monies received, 
and creditor for all monies paid ; and it should be balanced regu¬ 
larly once in a week or month, according to the number of entries 
the business may require. 

In the cash-book, all monies received for goods previously 
carried to account in the ledger, must be made received in the 
name of the person or firm who pays it, with the day of the 
month, &c. in the margin. It must "then be posted from thence 
to the credit of such person or firm in the ledger, with reference 
to the folio of each, in the same manner as from the day-book. 
But this may be seen more fully by the following specimen of a 
cash-book entry 
ledger entry:— 


, connected with the foregoing specimen of a 


J) r CASH. CONTRA. (J r 


1 

1840. 



£ 

s. 

d. 

1840. 



£ 

s. 

d. 

Jan. 1 

To Balance - - 


101 

6 

8 

Jan 1. 

House expenses 


5 

0 

0 

16. 

James Crawford - 

1 

3 

13 

0 

5. 

House repairs - 


24 

6 

3 

25. 

Sundries - 


5 

6 

4 

25. 

Carrick & Mac- 





Feb. 18. 

Cole and Brown, 
on account 






lean, on acct. 


76 

3 

0 

2 

50 

0 

0 




105 

9 

3 

Mar. 4. 

Mrs. Williams - 


0 

12 

6 


Balance - - - 


66 

5 

4 

25. 

Sundries - 


4 

8 

10 







31. 

Ditto - - - - 


6 

7 

3 










171 

14 

7 



i 

171 

14 

7 

April 1. 

Bal. brought for. 


66 

5 

4 








It is necessary here to remark, that in keeping accounts by 
single entry, the cash-book will be liable to some entries which 
are not to be charged to the account of any other person or firm ; 
such as all monies paid for various expenses which exclusively 
belong, and are incidental to every concern, and alsc all sums re¬ 
ceived in retail shops, &c. under the name of sundries. It will be 
desirable, therefore, to open an account in the ledger for each of 
these, by which means, every article in the cash-book will be 
posted somewhere ; and it will be also seen at one view the 































COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


199 


amount of expenses for’the year. If the money should be paid 
lor goods not posted in the ledger, it will be perfectly satisfactory 
to enter it in the cash-book, and refer it from thence to the day¬ 
book, without its appearing in the ledger at all. 

Besides the incidental expenses, there will often appear on the 
credit side of the cash-book sums of money paid to certain houses 
for goods bought; these, where the business is large enough to 
require it, should be posted in a ledger appropriated to the entry of 
such goods, commonly called a bought ledger ; see an article in the 
foregoing specimen, “ Garrick and Maclean, on account, £: 6 3s.” 

In addition to the books already mentioned, it will be also 
necessary in many instances to keep a bill-book, and a separate 
ledger for the entry of goods bought. 

Bill-Book. —The bill-book must be ruled so as to take a par¬ 
ticular account of all bills, both receivable and payable, such as 
the time, date, from whom received, to whom payable, &c. that it 
may be seen at one view what bills have been drawn on you, and 
when they must be provided for; and also what bills you may 
have by you drawn on other persons, that they may be presented 
at proper times, and that you may not lose your claim upon their 
drawers or accepters, by allowing them to remain till overdue. 
The forms of bills, and some general rules respecting them, will 
be given elsewhere. 

Bought Ledger. —The ledger for goods bought must be 
ruled in the same manner as the other ledger, and the goods you 
receive at various times must be entered to the credit of the 
several houses from whom they are bought, copying the amount 
from the invoices, which of course are previously agreed with the 
goods actually received; the sums of money paid to such houses 
will all appear in the cash-book when paid, and be posted from 
thence to the debit of each account. 

t< 

DOUBLE ENTRY. 

This method, called also the Italian method, has generally been 
preferred in merchants 1 accounts on a large scale, as being founded 
upon the most universal principles ; and the accountant who un¬ 
derstands it, will find little difficulty in following, or even in 
inventing, other methods that are better accommodated to any 
particular purpose. 

The Italian method requires three principal books ; the waste- 
book, journal, and ledger. 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


goo 

Waste Book. —The waste-book, or day-book, contains an 
exact register of all occurrences in business, in the same order as 
they take place. It begins with an inventory of every thing 
belonging to the owner, a list of the debts due to him, and of 
the debts he owes to others : it is carried on with a full relation 
of all the money he receives or pays, of all the goods he buys 
or sells, and of every other occurrence in his business. Each 
article should be entered as soon as the transaction takes place, 
and should be clearly expressed in the plainest language. It 
should require no supply from the accountant’s memory, but should 
be fully intelligible to any person, however unacquainted with the 
business; at the same time it should be written with all convenient 
• brevity; and, therefore, sometimes refers to invoices and other 
accounts, for particulars. The accountant's first care should be to 
have nothing defective or ambiguous; his second, to have nothing 
superfluous. The articles are separated from each other by a line; 
and the transactions of one day are separated from those of another 
by a double line, in the middle of which there is left a blank space 
for inserting the day of the month. This book must be kept 
with the greatest care, as it contains the materials from which the 
other books are composed; and any error or defect will occasion 
a like one in the others. Besides, it is the book whose authority 
is trusted to, and which must be exhibited to judges, or arbiters, 
when an account is disputed. As the journal is filled up from the 
waste-book, the authority of the latter is estimated more authentic, 
unless there be an obvious mistake through hurry ; and either of 
these books is depended on rather than the ledger, which, from its 
form is more liable to error, and may be more easily vitiated by a 
fraudulent design. 

The Journal contains an account of the same transactions, 
but expressed in a more artificial way, so as to point out the debtor 
and creditor in each case, and thereby to prepare the several articles 
for entrance in the ledger. In stating the debtor and creditor in 
an account, the following general rules are to be observed. 
1. That every article received, or every person accountable to us, 
is called the debtor, g. That everv article delivered, or everv 
person to whom we are accountable, is the creditor. Or more 
particularly :—the person to whom, or for whom we pay money, or 
furnish goods, is the Dr.; and the person from whom, or for whom, 
we receive money or goods, is the Cr. Every thing which comes 
into our possession, or under our direction, is the Dr.; and every 
thing which goes out of our possession, or from under our direction, 
is the Cr. 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


20 \ 


The following cases comprehend the most common occurrences 
m merchants’accounts. 1. The person to whom any thing or 
article is delivered becomes Dr. to the thing or article delivered 
when nothing is received in return. 2 . A thing received is Dr. 
to the person from whom it is received, when nothing is delivered 
in return. 3 . A thing received is Dr. to the thing given for it. 
4. Goods and all other real accounts, that is such as relate to 
property of every sort, are Drs. for all charges incurred for their 
sake. 5. When any profits are received from real accounts, as 
rents of houses, freights of ships, bounties or drawbacks on goods 
exported or imported, and the like, cash becomes Dr. for the 
amount received, to the account or article from which the profit is 
derived. 6. When any loss is sustained, the account of profit and 
loss, or some other account of the same import, is Dr. to cash for 
the amount. 7. When any profit or gain arises, but not from 
any real account, cash, the article received, or the person account¬ 
able for the profit, is Dr. to the account of profit and loss, or to 
some other account of the same nature, for the amount. 8. When 
one person pays money, or delivers any thing to another person, on 
account, the receiver is Dr. to the person who pays or delivers. 

The Ledger. —In this book all transactions belonging to one 
person or one article of merchandise are collected together and 
entered as they occur, under one head, expressing the person or 
thing concerned in the account: and as in every transaction there 
must be a Dr. and Cr. the occurrence is entered in the accounts 
of both, on opposite sides ; a circumstance frtxn which book-keep¬ 
ing by double entry has obtained its name. All accounts in the 
ledger are either real, personal, or fictitious. In personal accounts 
the person is entered Dr. or Cr. according to the nature of the 
transaction, as is done in accounts kept by single entry. In real 
accounts each article is entered on the Dr. or Cr. side agreeably 
to the entries in the journal. In fictitious accounts all articles 
appear to have relation to stock, or to profit and loss. By stock 
is meant the merchant himself to whom the books belong; for his 
name never appears in his own books. On the Dr. side of this 
account appears the debts owing by the merchant; while on the 
Cr. side appears the monies due to him, with cash, goods, ships, 
and all other property belonging to him, in the outset of his 
business and books. By profit and loss, is understood whatever 
may be gained or lost in business: the Dr. side showing the loss, 
and the Cr. side the gain upon every transaction. The following 
is a specimen of the mode of keeping a set of books by a double 
entry, or the Waste-book, Journal, and Ledger. 

D D 


202 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


WASTE-BOOK. 

FOLIO 1. 


Inventory of the Money, Goods, and Debts , due to or by Jama 

Campbell, Merchant, London, 


January 1 , 1840. 

Ready money .£2000 0 0 

225 yards of broad-cloth, at 205.) ^5 0 0 

a yard . ) 

1000 yards of linen, at 3s. a yard 150 0 0 
16 puncheons of rum, at £50 a) g^Q q q 

puncheon.j 

| Ship Diligence. 450 0 0 

John Reynolds owes me per 4 

bond with interest at 5 per ! ~ ~ 

cent., from the 1 st of Sep- j 
tember last. J 

List of Debts, 

To John Edwards on demand . . 150 0 0 

Edward Jones, per account. . 135 10 6 

7. 

1 Paid John Edwards in Full . 

12 . 

1 Bought of Edward Jones 500 yards of broad¬ 
cloth at 20 s. a yard. 

20 . 

Sold 150 yards of linen at 3s. 2 d. a yard .. 

30. 

Bartered 5 puncheons of rum, at £50 per 
puncheon, for 25 hhds. of Lisbon wine, at 
£10 a hhd. 

Feb. 2. 

Sold William Beddome 72 yards of broad¬ 
cloth, at 25s. a yard . 

6 . 

Shipped on board the Yarmouth, Captain 
Blake, for Jamaica, the follow ing goods, 
addressed to Matthew Fysh on my ac¬ 
count, namely— 

700 yards of linen, at 3s. a yard.. 105 0 0 
200 —--broad-cloth, at 20 s. . 200 0 0 


£ 

s. 

4125 

0 

285 

10 

150 

0 

500 

0 

23 

15 

250 

0 

90 

0 


d 


0 


6 

0 

0 

0 


0 


0 


























COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


208 


WASTE-BOOK. 


T G 
No. 

1 

2 


FOLIO 2. 

8 pieces of Holland, bought of"! 

*152 00 j 

William Beddome, at £19 a! 

piece . ) 

l 

Paid duty and fees, &c. 

16 4 2 

Ditto for insurance of £400 by'! 
John Rickman and Co. at 5 


> 20 0 0 

per cent. J 



Feb. 27. 

Paid Edward Jones in full . 

28. 

Paid my servants their quarter's wages, 
which, together with the expenses of my 
house, &c. for the last quarter, is in all . . 

March 10. 

Shipped on board the Trident, John Jones, 
master, by order, and for account of 
Theophilus Grimaldi, merchant in Leg¬ 
horn, the following goods, marked and 
numbered as per margin, namely, 

200 yards my own broad-cloth,) 

2 5s .j 

10 ton lead, bought for r< 
money, at £16 45. .. . 

16 pieces drugget, at £7 75.) 
bought of John Edwards .. j 

Paid Custom and other charges 
till on board 

Paid John Rickman and Co. for 
insuring £400 on the whole 

My Commission on ditto, at 2| 
per cent. 

16. 

The owners of the ship Diligence have 
settled the accounts, and paid me my 
share of neat gain from Michaelmas to 

Lady-day . 

17. 

Received of John Reynolds for a half-year’s 

interest of £500 due the 1st inst. 

25. 

Drawn my bill on Theophilus Grimaldi, in 
Leghorn, for 1200 piastres, at 53d. each, 
payable to Enoch Francis, or order, value 
here received . 


ready j 


1 


250 0 0 


162 0 0 


117 12 0 
12 8 7 


1 


10 10 0 


11 1 3 


£ 


493 

635 


4 

10 


93 


d . 


2 

6 


10 


563 

11 

94 

13 

12 

10 

250 

0 


10 


8 


0 


0 































YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


204 


JOURNAL. 

FOLIO 1. 


1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 



3 


1 



January 1, 184*0. 

Sundries Dr. to Stock £4*125. 

Cash for ready money. 2000 0 0 

Broad-cloth, for 225 yards at) n a 

20*. a yard. ) 225 ° ° 

Linen, for 1000 yards, at 3s. a | q q 

yard.J 

Rum, for 16 puncheons, at £50) ^ q 

a puncheon.j 

Ship Diligence, for § cost.... 4*50 0 0 

John Reynolds, per bond bear-4 

ing interest at 5 per cent. 500 0 0 

from the 1st of September.. J 

Stock Dr. to Sundries £285 10 6. 

To John Edwards on demand.. 150 0 0 
To Edward Jones, per account. 135 10 6 

7. 

John Edwards Dr. to Cash £150. 

Paid him if null . 

12. 

Droad- Cloth Dr. to Edward Jones £500. 

For 500 yards, at 20s. a yard. 

20. 

Cash Dr. to Linen £23 15. 

For 150 yards, at 3s. 2 d. a yard. 

30. 

Lisbon Wine Dr. to Rum £250. 

For 25 hhds. at £10 a hhd. received in barter 
for 5 puncheons, at £50 a puncheon .... 

Feb. 2. 

William Beddome Dr. to Broad- Cloth £90. 
For 72 yards, at 25s. a yard . 

6. 

Voyage to Jamaica Dr. to Sundries 
£493 4* 2. 

To linen, 700 yards, at 3s. 105 0 0 

To broad-cloth, 200 yards, at 20s. 200 0 0 



4125 


285 

150 

500 

23 


250 

90 


d. 

) 

( 

* 

0 0 

10 6 

0 0 

0 0 

15 0 

0 0 

(! 0 

4 

I 

J 

























COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


205 


1_ 

2 

1 

3 

1 



2 

1 

1 

2 

2 



2 



JOURNAL. 

FOLIO 2. 

Brought forward 305 0 0 
1 o William Beddome, for 8 pieces) . _ 0 „ 

of Holland, at £19. j 152 0 0 

To cash, for duty, insurance, &c. 36 4 2 

Feb 27. 

Edward Jones Dr. to Cash £635 10 6. 
Paid him in full .. 

28. 

Profit and Loss Dr. to Cash £93 4 10. 

For servants’ wages, with house and pocket 
expenses during the last quarter. 

March 10. 

Theophilus Grimaldi's Account Current Dr. 
to Sundries £563 11 10. 

To broad-cloth, 200 yards at 255. 250 0 0 
To cash for 10 tons lead, at) 

£16 45. with charges. j 

To John Edwards, for 16 pairs) 117 19 n 

druggets, at £7 Is .j 

Profit and loss for my commission 11 13 

16. 

Cash Dr. to Ship Diligence £94 13 8. 

For my share of the neat gain from Michael¬ 
mas to Lady-day . 

17. 

Cash Dr. to Profit and Loss £12 10. 

For half year’s interest on £500 of John 
Reynolds. 

25. - 

Cash Dr. to Theophilus Grimaldi's Account 

£250. 

Drawn my bill on him for 1200 piastres at 
50d. each, payable to Enoch Francis or 
order, value received . 


£ 

s. 

493 

4 

635 

10 

93 

4 

563 

11 

94 

13 

12 

10 

250 

0 


d. 


6 


10 


10 


8 


0 


0 

























LEDGER. 


206 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 



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209 


# 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 

The books should be written up as frequently as can be done 
conveniently ; so that the journal may keep pace nearly with the 
waste-book, and the ledger with the journal. Each book 
should be carefully revised, and compared with the book from 
which it is posted, and corresponding marks placed to each article 
as you proceed, to show how far it has been examined. Having 
made these preparations, proceed to balance the several accounts, 
and close the books thus : Let all accounts have their sums of 
money on both sides added up in two totals : but before these 
totals are set down, if they be unequal, let the sides be made 
equal (that is, balanced) by writing down on the lighter side as 
much as will make it equal on the heavier, which sum is generally 
charged debtor to, or creditor by either profit and loss or 
balance, these being the two accounts by which most others are 
balanced: all cases, in which any thing is either gained or lost, 
being balanced by means of profit and loss ; and all those in 
which goods or any thing remains in your hands, or in which any 
thing is clue to or by you, are closed by means of the balance ac¬ 
count, which is drawn out at the end of the ledger to receive all 
such balances ; and the articles closed by profit and loss being 
carried to the profit and loss account By these means all the 
gains and losses are collected into one place under the title of 
profit and loss ; and all the effects and debts into another, under 
the title of balance; and therefore by closing or balancing these 
two general accounts by means of the stock account, and carrying 
the two equalling sums to their proper sides of the stock account, 
those two sides then added up will be exactly equal to each other; 
otherwise the work is somewhere wrong, and must be examined 
till the error be rectified. 

In book-keeping by double entry as well as that by single entry, 
many accounts in the ledger must be simplified and shortened, by 
employing sundry assisting or subsidiary books, each set apart for 
particular branches of business. Of these the principal are the 
Cash-book, the Bill-book, the Sales-book, the Invoice-book, &c., 
forming so many parts of the waste-book, for those articles be¬ 
longing to the respective subject of each subsidiary book. By 
this method the proper waste-book will comprise only a general 
statement of transactions noticed in the subsidiary books: with 
particular specifications of those transactions alone for which no 
other books are kept. By this process, and by balancing those 
smaller books at stated periods, monthly or otherwise, the entries 
in the ledger are greatly diminished in number. Persons employed 
to import or export goods on commission, or for the account of 
others, must at all times keep books of Invoice and Sale: and 

E E 


210 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


Cash and Bill-books are indispensable in every branch of mer¬ 
cantile concerns. 

The Cash-book contains an account of all money matters, kept 
in the same way with the cash account in the foregoing specimen; 
the Dr. side showing all monies received, and the Cr. side all 
monies paid or expended. This book contains all such issues or 
receipts of money as being merely temporary, like small loans, 
occasional accommodations to neighbours in trade, &c. need not 
appear formally in the regular journal and ledger. The Bill-book 
exhibits a register of all bills of exchange, both payable and re¬ 
ceivable : it is divided into columns set apart for the several par¬ 
ticulars relative to each bill, such as when received, bv whom drawn, 
on whom drawn, the date, to whom payable, the time when due, 
the sum, &c. &c. 

The Invoice-book contains copies of all invoices or statements 
of goods sent off or exported on commission; containing the name 
of the ship and the master, the place of destination, the person 
to whom the goods are consigned. Then follows a statement 
of the quantities and values of the several articles despatched, 
and of the charges for shipping the goods, or for other purposes, 
paid by the merchant, the exporter, or the factor. Upon the 
total amount of all these expenditures is charged the commission 
or allowance for the trouble of the exporter. 

The Bales-book, or Factory-book points out the neat or (as it 
is usually written) the net proceeds, or the exact money, arising 
from the sale of any article or merchandise, when all expenses are 
deducted, and when that sale has been made upon consignment or 
commission. This is also called the account of sales, or more 
commonly the account-sales ; and it is divided like the accounts in 
the ledger, into two opposite pages forming one folio, with the 
title extending across both. On the left hand are entered all 
charges attending the transactions, such as those for freight, cus¬ 
tom-house dues, landing, warehousing, selling, &c. On the same 
side appear also the broker's charges and the factor's commission, 
both of which are reckoned up in the gross or total amount of the 
sales. On the right hand page appear the quantity, the price, the 
value of the goods sold, with the name of the buyer, and the 
mode and time of payment. When the total expenses of the 
transactions are taken from the total amount of the sales, the dif¬ 
ference is called the net proceeds, which being on the left hand 
page makes it equal to the other on the right. 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


2!1 


BILLS OF EXCHANGE. 

Exchange means the paying of a sum of money in one country 
or in one place of a country, for an equivalent sum in another 
country, or in another place of the same country. This is done 
by means of Bills of Exchange, which are written orders directing 
the payment of a certain sum of money at a fixed time. Bills of 
Exchange are either inland or foreign : the former are drawn and 
payable within one and the same state or country : but foreign 
bills are drawn in one country or state and payable in another. 
The period when a bill is due, or its term, varies according to the 
agreement between the parties concerned, or to the custom of the 
countries where it is drawn and made payable. Some are drawn 
at sight, that is, they must be paid as soon as presented : others 
are made payable at a certain distance of time, as a number of 
days or months after sight, or after the date of the bill: others 
again are drawn at usance, which is the customary term allowed, 
in different countries, for a bill being paid after it is dated or 
presented for payment. Double usance is twice this term, and 
half usance is half this term. Besides this usual term of payment, 
a certain time is also allowed after the time is expired, before 
payment can be enforced by law: and this additional time consists 
of a certain number of days of grace or favour, which in the 
British Isles is three : but bills drawn at sight are not entitled to 
any indulgence or days of grace. 

It is of great importance that all inland bills of exchange or 
promissory notes be drawn on the proper stamps, and also without 
any alterations in the time, date, or names of the parties, as a 
neglect of either of these particulars will effectually invalidate 
them in the eye of the law, if it be found necessary to sue the 
parties for the amount. The following precedents will be found 
to suit all common occasions ; and in drawing bills, care must be 
taken that the sum in writing agrees with that in figures, as much 
mischief has often arisen, even from the most trifling irregularities 
of this nature. 


Inland Bills. 


o£50 : 0 : 0. 

At sight pay Mr. George 
for value received. 

Mr. Peter Thornton, 
Merchant, London. 


Oxford , Jan . 1, 1840. 
Gregory, or order, fifty pounds, 

James Dawson. 


212 


YOUNG MAN^ COMPANION. 


£21 : 6 : 0. Bristol , Jan. 14, 1840. 

Seven days after sight pay to the order of Mr. John Smith 
twenty-one pounds six shillings value received of Mr. John 
Grant. 


Messrs. Thomas & Jones, 
Milk Street, London. 


David Jones. 


£500 : 0 : 0. London , Jan. 1, 1840. 

Two months after date pay to my order five hundred pounds 
value received. 

John Grimshaw, Esq. 

Merchant, London. Joseph Greening. 


Foreign Bills. 

London , Jan. 16, 1840. 

460 crowns, at 56fd. sterling per crown. 

At usance pay this my first bill of exchange (second or 
third of the same tenor and date not paid) to Mr. Simon Morris, 
or order, four hundred and sixty crowns, at 56Jd. per crown, for 
valued received of Mr James Adams, as per advice from 

Mr. Samuel White, Merchant, Thomas White. 

Amsterdam. 

Liverpool, Jan . 24, 1840. 

480 dollars, at 25 Jd. per dollar. 

At usance anda half pay this my first bill of exchange to 
Jonas Fox, Esq. or order, four hundred and eighty dollars, at 55Jd. 
per dollar, value received. 

Mr. James Hortsman, Joseph Goodman. 

Merchant, Cadiz. 

Note. Usance between England, France, or Holland, is one 
calendar month; between England, Spain, or Portugal, two 
months ; and between England and Italy, three months. 

Rules respecting Bills of Exchange, 

1. The accepter of any bill becomes absolute debtor to the 
person to whom it is payable, or to any subsequent holder, for its 
contents. 


COMMERCE, TRADE, ETC. 


213 


2. The drawer of any bill must give his correspondent a letter 
of advice that he has drawn such a bill, or such correspondent is 
under no obligation either to accept or pay it; and if the bill 
should be returned, although the party may have effects in his 
hands, yet all the expenses attending its return will fall on the 
drawer, for such neglect. 

S. The holder of all bills of exchange must see that the.y are 
presented for payment on the day they become due, or all the 
parties through whose hands they have passed, except the accepter 
and drawer, will be completely exonerated from paying them. If 
the accepter die before they become due, they must be demanded 
of the executor or administrator. 

4. All bills of exchange when paid must have a receipt on the 
back of them ; the party receiving the money, if receiving it for 
his own use, need only write the word 44 received'” and sign his 

name ; if for another person or firm, 44 received for-■” and also 

sign his name. 

5. It frequently happens, that between the acceptance of a bill 
and the time of payment, the party to whom it is first made pay¬ 
able has occasion to pay it away: if so, he writes his name on the 
back of the bill, which is his order, and gives it to the person he 
is indebted to, and then he is empowered to receive the money: it 
may be, the second person also wants to pay it away, and then he 
likewise writes his name under the other, and delivers it to a third 
person to receive the money; and it may be, the third does the 
same, and delivers it to a fourth person, &c. All that do so are 
endorsers : and he that last has the bill, if the accepter will not 
pay it when due, may sue him, or the endorsers, or drawer, or any 
of them, for the money. 

6. When a bill is dishonoured, the party that holds it may 
send it to the public notary, whose business it is : and he demands 
payment, and then, if required, draws up a protest according to 
law; which is to be returned to the drawer, within the time limited. 

Note. The protest is not often used except in the case of 
foreign bills. 


Promissory Notes, 

London , Jan. 1, 1840. 

On demand, I promise to pay Solomon Greening, Esq. or 
order, one hundred pounds, value received, with lawful interest on 
the same. 

i?100 : 0 : 0. Joseph Brown. 


214 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

£61 : 10 : 0. Birmingham ,, Jan. 1, 1840. 

Three months after elate we promise to pay Messrs. Gros- 
venor and Norris, or order, sixty-seven pounds ten shillings for 
value received. 

At Messrs. Ladbroke and Co/’s. Saull and Saddkigton. 

Bankers, London. 

If a promissory note on deipand be kept by the holder above 
three days, and the drawer of it should fail, the loss will fall on 
the holder; but if it be presented and returned within that time, 
the loss will foil on the person from whom it was received. 


Forms of Receipts . 

When an apprentice or servant receives money for the use of 
his employer:— 

Received, the 13th of January, 1840, of Mr. John Bar¬ 
nett, forty-eight pounds nine shillings and sixpence, for my master, 
Randell Norris. 

£48 : 9 : 6. Samuel Summers. 

Received, the 19th of January, 1840, of Mr. John Scott, 
nine pounds twelve shillings on account, for my father, Joseph 
Bakewell. 

£9 : 12 : 0. Thomas Bakewell. 

When masters and men of business receive money on their 
own account:— 

Received, the 24th of February, 1840, of Messrs. Jones 
and Bell, fifty-five pounds five shillings on account. 

£55 : 5 : 0. George Thompson. 

Received, the 1st of March, 1840, of Mr. Jonathan 
Wright, sixty, pounds eighteen shillings, in full of all demands 
for self and partner. 

£60 : 18 : 0. Thomas Dicks. 


BIOGRAPHY. 


«15 


CHAPTER VI. 

BIOGRAPHY 


This species of composition consists of the lives of distinguished 
nnd eminent persons in every rank of life and every range of 
celebrity. In ancient times it appears that some kind of biography 
originated with bards and minstrels, and that the subjects of their 
pen were supplied by the wonderful exploits of their chiefs, to 
whom they ascribed superhuman abilities, and whom they magnified 
into demigods. These effusions of the poets were held by the chief¬ 
tains in the highest veneration ; not merely as the inspirations of 
genius, but as the still loftier conceptions of beings whose minds 
were under the peculiar impulse of superior power. If, however, 
we advert to the history of ancient Greece, whose illustrious sons 
eminently distinguished themselves in every department of sci¬ 
entific and literary acquisition, we shall find that it had almost 
passed the zenith of glory, before legitimate and sober biography 
obtained any eminent station in the department of its literature. 
The virtues of Socrates employed the exquisite taste of Xeno¬ 
phon, and the sublime genius of Plato ; the philosophic sagacity, 
and the enthusiastic zeal, with which they have delineated the 
character of this extraordinary man, will engage the attention, 
and excite the admiration of succeeding ages. But it was 
about the beginning of the second century, that Plutarch, by 
the' diligence of his investigation, placed this species of history 
in the conspicuous situation which it now occupies, and by com¬ 
bining entertainment and instruction with fidelity of represen¬ 
tation, stamped the indelible marks of truth upon his interesting 
productions. 

During the sixth and seventh centuries biography partook 
of that ignorance and darkness which marked all other branches 
of polite literature. The greater part of the monastic orders, 
the only class of persons whom the voice of an illiterate age 
had dignified with the character of learning, lavished their time 
in studying the fabulous legends of pretended saints, or in 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


21G 

composing histones equally fabulous. But since the revival ol 
learning, biography has been considered as an accession to the 
stores of mental opulence, and has been consecrated to the de¬ 
velopment of the nature of man, the progress of intellect, and 
the conformation of character ; instead of being employed to throw 
the mysterious veil of sanctity over the basest passions of human 
nature. 

It has been observed, that in the history of empires and 
nations, the theatre is wide, the drama extended, the characters 
exceedingly diversified, and incidents almost inexplicably inter¬ 
woven. History presents man to our remote view in patriarchal 
simplicity, and traces him from the wildest barbarism to the high- 
wrought specimen of cultivated life ; but biography selects from 
the mass of human kind some eminent and distinguished in¬ 
dividuals, that we may be gratified with the advantage of a nearer 
contemplation. General history exhibits the monarch on his 
throne, the statesman in his cabinet, the hero in the field, and 
describes no more of their principles and passions than is indis¬ 
pensably necessary to mark the connexion of events, and the 
illustration of public transactions; while biography introduces us 
to a closer inspection of those qualftes which had a mysterious 
influence in stamping upon the character its individual peculiarity. 
Whilst the lapse of time is thickening the veil which is spread 
over remote persons and interesting events, biography steps 
forward to rescue what is memorable from sinking into total ob¬ 
livion. It introduces the inquisitive mind into an intimate ac¬ 
quaintance with philanthropists, philosophers, and moralists, who 
have long since abandoned this orb; it leads us through a series of 
uniform and characteristic actions into a clear and full knowledge 
of those who were once either the destroyers, or the benefactors 
of mankind; and gently compels the mind to combine by its own 
operations all the detached instances of virtue in one bright as¬ 
semblage. Biography exhibits principles in operation, and trans¬ 
ports the imagination into the presence of the wisest and greatest of 
our progenitors, though separated from them by the intervention of 
ages and generations, of oceans and continents. Here we behold 
the transient distinctions of this world obliterated, mental and 
moral worth surviving the ruins of the tomb, and the brow of 
goodness crowned with laurels, which will outlive the verdure of 
the spring, and bloom for ever in perennial beauty. Another 
advantage resulting from biography is, that it enables us to form 
our opinions relative to the nature of man, by causing him to pass 
before us under all the various forms of human' existence ; hence 
individual representations are obviously superior to general and 



BIOGRAPHY. 


217 


aggregrate. The attention being confined to one particular object, 
the view is necessarily more distinct, and the impression upon the 
heart more forcible and durable. As there is an innocent and in¬ 
structive curiosity i*n the human mind, prompting it to be inquisitive 
respecting the commencement of whatever has excited its attention, 
it is not presumptuous to expect, that a work professedly biographical 
should delineate the prominent features of the moral man, mark 
the progressive development of intellect, and trace the causes 
and influence which operated in the formation of character. 

The perusal of biographical composition gives an unbounded scope 
to almost all the powers of the mind. The imagination presents 
the person, the place, and the incidental events before the eye; 
the understanding arranges and associates ideas, traces the ope¬ 
rations of different circumstances in forming the peculiar com¬ 
plexion of the character, whilst the passions are excited in 
proportion to the excellency of the subject. If the subject of the 
narrative has distinguished himself by moral or religious attain¬ 
ments, it will impress a salutary influence upon the conscience, 
lead to self-reflection, occasion moral comparison, and act upon 
the mind as a stimulus to follow and resemble him in the essential 
determination of his character. On the other hand, if by his 
extraordinary endowments he has explored new regions of science, 
or reached to superior excellence in the fine arts, the contemplation 
of his character will give an immediate interest to the mind, kindle 
the flame of emulation, excite intense application, and call into 
exercise the sublimest energies of the human character. One of 
the principal ends of biography is, to make pleasing entertainment 
the vehicle of important information. The page of history is 
generally employed in relating the aggrandizement of kingdoms, 
the subversion of empires, the achievements of mighty con¬ 
querors, and the adjustment of treaties; which, however interesting 
to the sagacious politician, are deficient in entertainment, and capable 
of little or no application to ordinary life, where men excel each 
other only by prudence and virtue. Scenes of violence and blood, 
the workings of ambition, pride, and revenge, stain the historic 
page ; but a faithful delineation of eminent personages, though 
it does not shine with so conspicuous a glare, diversifies the scene 
with milder colours and more beautiful shades. 

Biographers lie under many disadvantages, and are liable to 
many mistakes. The authority upon which the principal part of 
their writings rests, is not always entitled to unlimited confidence. 
Their chief authorities are private testimonies and traditional 
reports; materials which, when accessible, are generally dispersed 
and confounded among the ruins of nature, and the rubbish of 

v v 


218 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


fictitious representation, and cannot easily be distinguished and 
separated, even by the eye of discernment and the hand of honesty. 
To discriminate accurately those circumstances which may have 
influenced the character of a distinguished personage, forms one of 
those departments of philosophical investigation that can never 
become useless or uninteresting; but these circumstances are far 
from being universally obvious. The principal events of the life 
of an individual are often dependent on causes totally unknown 
to himself; and it is not impossible, but that a circumstance, so 
trivial as to escape his own attention, may produce a series of events, 
all of which contribute to form his character, and fix the part ap¬ 
pointed him to perform in the great drama of human life. The 
biographer, therefore, can scarcely be expected to obtain that insight 
into the motions of the mind, which is so necessary to ascertain 
the causes that influenced the moral formation of the man. This 
unavoidable defect in biographical writings induced our great 
moralist to give the decided preference to the memoirs of which 
the subject is his own writer. The author here cannot deviate 
from the truth through ignorance or involuntary error, but a vast 
allowance must be made to the powerful operation of the principle 
of self-love, which presents a difficulty in regard to this species of 
writing for which ample allowance must be made. 

Another difficulty in the way of a man’s writing memoirs of 
himself is caused by the extreme deficiency of that self-observation 
which, to any extent, is no common employment either of youth 
or any later age. “ Men,” says Foster, “realize their existence in 
the surrounding objects that act upon them and form the interests 
of self, rather than in that very self—that inferior being, which 
is thus acted upon. So that this being itself, with its thoughts and 
feelings, as distinct from the objects of those thoughts and feelings, 
but rarely occupies its own deep and patient attention. Men carry 
their minds as they carry their watches, content to be ignorant of 
the mechanism of their movements, and satisfied with attending to 
the little exterior circle of things, to which the passions, like indexes, 
are pointing. It is surprising to see how little self-knowledge a 
person not watchfully observant of himself may have gained in the 
whole course of an active, or even an inquisitive life. He may have 
lived almost an age, and traversed a continent, minutely examining 
its curiosities, and interpreting the half-obliterated characters on its 
monuments, unconcious the while of a process operating on his own 
mind to impress or to erase characteristics of much more importance 
to him than all the figured brass or marble that Europe contains. 
After having explored many a cavern or dark ruinous avenue, he 
may have left undetected a darker recess in his character. He 


BI0GEAP1IY. 


219 


may have conversed with many people, in different languages, on 
numberless subjects; but, having neglected those conversations 
with himself by which his whole moral being should have been kept 
continually disclosed to his view, he is better qualified, perhaps, to 
describe the intrigues of a foreign court, or the progress of a 
foreign trade ; to represent the manners of the Italians, or the 
Turks; to narrate the proceedings of the Jesuits, or the ad¬ 
ventures of the gypsies; than t*o write the history of his own 
mind.” Notwithstanding these difficulties, there are many ad¬ 
vantages attending an autobiography, and accordingly some of the 
most interesting portions of our literature have been found among 
this species of composition. 

A late biographer observes, “ that the writer of his own life 
has at least the first qualification of an historian—the knowledge 
of the truth; and though it may be plausibly objected that his 
temptations to disguise it are equal to his opportunities of knowing 
it, yet we cannot but think that impartiality may be expected 
with equal confidence from him that relates the passage of his 
own life, as from him that delivers the transactions of another. 
He who sits down calmly and voluntarily to review his life for 
the admonition of posterity, or to amuse himself, and leaves this 
account unpublished, may be commonly pronounced to tell the 
truth, since falsehood cannot appease his own mind and fame will 
not be heard beneath the tomb.” 

We now proceed to introduce a few examples of this species 
of writing, and they shall be selected from among different classes 
of character. Our object will be rather to give a number of 
slight biographical sketches, illustrative of certain castes and dis¬ 
positions of mind, than laboured histories of a few individuals. 
Our examples shall be distributed under the following heads: 

I. Eminent Statesmen, Philosophers, and Men of Science. 

II. Naval and Military Men. III. Poets and Literary Cha¬ 
racters. IV. Christian Divines, Philanthropists, &c. The two 
first of these classes will introduce us chiefly to individuals shining 
in public life; the two latter will invite us to contemplate the cha¬ 
racter of private individuals, whose claim to publicity is derived 
chiefly from their talents or their virtues. 

Section I.—Statesmen, Philosophers, and Men 

of Science. 

DR. FRANKLIN 

Benjamin Franklin, the celebrated philosopher and statesman, 
was a remarkable instance of a man’s rising to eminence from a 


220 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


low station in life, merely in consequence of tlie ardent pursuit of 
knowledge. He was born in the year 1706, at Boston, in 
America. His ancestors resided for many generations in North¬ 
amptonshire, England ; but the persecution of the non-conformists 
in the reign of Charles II. induced his father to take refuge in 
New England, where he followed the trade of a tallow-chandler. 
Franklin very early discovered a propensity towards literary 
pursuits, which determined his father to qualify him for the 
ministry ; but his design was frustrated by an increasing family, 
and Benjamin was taken from school at ten years of age, to help 
m the drudgery of his father’s trade. This greatly mortified the 
aspiring mind of young Franklin, who preferred a seafaring life ; 
but was prevailed on by the persuasions of his father to relinquish 
this plan, on account of its ill effects on his morals. He had 
access to very few books ; but among these was Defoe upon 
Projects, which made such impressions on his mind, as in a great 
measure directed the pursuits of his after life. He was at length 
placed with his brother who had a printing-office in Boston, and 
was bound apprentice to him at twelve years of age. With the 
mechanical part of the business he was soon acquainted ; and the 
opportunities afforded him of procuring new books to read, were 
eagerly seized, and the greater part of the night frequently spent 
in the perusal of them. He soon became anxious to imitate the 
works which he most admired, and his first attempts at compo¬ 
sition consisted of ballads. His father, however, succeeded in 
convincing him that he was not formed to excel as a poet. He 
therefore turned his attention to prose composition, in which he 
succeeded admirably. With a passion for reading and writing, 
he imbibed a kindred one for disputation, and adopting the So- 
cratic method, he became dexterous in confuting and confounding 
an antagonist by a series of questions. 

He had an intimate acquaintance of the n-ame of Collins, who 
was, like himself, passionately fond of books, and with whom he 
was in the habit of arguing upon such subjects as they met with 
in the course of their reading. Among other questions which 
they discussed in this way, one accidentally arose on the abilities 
of women, and the propriety of giving them a learned education. 
Collins maintained their natural unfitness for any of the severer 
studies, while Franklin took the contrary side of the question— 
“ perhaps,” he says, “ a little for dispute sake.” His antagonist 
had always the greater plenty of words, but Franklin thought 
that, on this occasion in particular, his own arguments were rathei 
the stronger; and, on their parting without settling the point, h( 
sat down, and put a summary of what he advanced in writing 


BIOGRAPHY. 


m 

which he copied out and sent to Collins. This gave a new form 
to the discussion, which was now carried on for some time by 
letters, of which three or four had been written on both sides, 
when the correspondence fell into the hands of Franklin’s father. 
His natural acuteness and good sense enabled him here again to 
render an essential service to his son, by pointing out to him how 
far he fell short of his antagonist in elegance of expression, in 
method, and in perspicuity, though he had the advantage of him 
in correct spelling and punctuation, which he evidently owed to his 
experience in the printing-office. From that moment Franklin de¬ 
termined to spare no pains in endeavouring to improve his style; and 
we shall give, in his own words, the method he pursued for that end. 

“ About this time,” says he, in the autobiography of his early 
life, “ I met with an odd volume of the Spectator : I had never 
before seen any of them. I bought it, read it over and over, and 
was much delighted with it. I thought the writing excellent; 
and wished, if possible, to imitate it. With that view, I took 
some of the papers, and making short hints of the sentiments in 
each sentence, laid them by a few days ; and then, without looking 
at the book, tried to complete the papers again, by expressing 
each hinted sentiment at length, and as fully as it had been ex¬ 
pressed before, in any suitable words that should occur to me. 
Then I compared my Spectator with the original, discovered 
some of my faults, and corrected them. But I found 1 wanted 
a stock of words, or a readiness in recollecting and using them, 
which I thought I should have acquired before that time if I had 
gone on making verses; since the continual search for words of 
the same import, but of different length, to suit the measure, or 
of different sound for the rhyme, would have laid me under a 
constant necessity of searching for variety, and also have tended 
to fix that variety in my mind, and make me master of it. 
Therefore, I took some of the tales in the Spectator, and turned 
them into verse; and, after a time, when I had pretty well for¬ 
gotten the prose, turned them back again. I also sometimes 
jumbled my collection of hints into confusion ; and, after some 
weeks, endeavoured to reduce them into the best order, before I 
began to form the full sentences and complete the subject. This 
was to teach me method in the arrangement of the thoughts. By 
comparing my work with the original, I discovered many faults, 
and corrected them; but I sometimes had the pleasure to fancy 
that, in certain particulars of small consequence, I had been for¬ 
tunate enough to improve the method of the language ; and this 
encouraged me to think that I might, in time, come to be a 
tolerable English writer, of which I was extremely ambitious.” 


222 


FOUNG man's companion. 


Even at this early age nothing could exceed the perseverance 
and self-denial which Franklin displayed, in pursuing his favourite 
object of cultivating his mental faculties to the utmost of his 
power. When only sixteen, he chanced to meet with a book in 
recommendation of a vegetable diet, one of the arguments at 
least in favour of which made an immediate impression upon 
him—namely, its greater cheapness ; and from this and other 
considerations, he determined to adopt that way of living for 
the future. Having taken his resolution, he proposed to his 
brother, if he would give him weekly only half what his board 
had hitherto cost, to board himself,—an offer which was imme¬ 
diately accepted. He presently found that, by adhering to his 
new system of diet, he could still save half what his brother 
allowed him. 

A few years before this his brother had begun to publish a 
newspaper, the second that had appeared in America. Benjamin 
sent a number of pieces, on various topics, to be inserted, which 
met with the approbation of the most competent judges. His 
brother, however, always treated him with the harshness of a 
master, till at length the States of America having prohibited 
James Franklin from publishing his paper, on account of some 
political offence, the name of Benjamin was employed as pub¬ 
lisher, in consequence of which he procured his indentures. 

He now resolved to make his way to New York, the nearest 
place where there was a printer ; and accordingly, after selling his 
books to raise a little money, he embarked on board a vessel for 
that city, without communicating his intention to his friends, who 
he knew would oppose it. In three days he found himself at the 
end of his voyage, near three hundred miles from his home, at 
the age of seventeen, without the least recommendation, as he 
tells us, or knowledge of any person in the place, and with very 
little money in his pocket. Worst of all, upon applying to the 
only printer likely to give him any employment, he found that 
this person had nothing for him to do, and that the only way in 
which he could serve him was by recommending him to proceed 
to Philadelphia, a hundred miles further, where he had a son, who, 
he believed, might employ him. 

The following is his own most graphic description of his first 
appearance in Philadelphia. After concluding the account of his 
voyage along the coast, “ I have been the more particular,'” says 
he, “ in this description, and shall be so of my first entry, into 
that city, that you may, in your mind, compare such unlikely 
beginnings with the figure I have since made there. I was in 
my working dress, my best clothes coming round by sea. I was 


BIOGRAPHY 


223 

dirty, from my being so long in the boat; my pockets were stuffed 
out with shirts and stockings ; and I knew no one, nor where to 
look for lodgings. Fatigued with walking, rowing, and the want 
of sleep, I was very hungry; and my whole stock of cash con¬ 
sisted in a single dollar, and about a shilling in copper coin, which 
I gave to the boatmen for my passage. At first they refused it, 
on account of my having rowed; but I insisted on their taking 
it. Man is sometimes more generous when he has little money 
than when he has plenty, perhaps to prevent his being thought to 
have but little. I walked towards the top of the street, gazing 
about till near Market-street, where I met a boy with bread. I 
had often made a meal of dry bread, and inquired where he had 
bought it. I went immediately to the baker's he directed me to. 
I asked for biscuits, meaning such as we had at Boston ; that sort, 
it seems, was not made in Philadelphia. I then asked for a three¬ 
penny loaf, and was told they had none. Not knowing the dif¬ 
ferent prices, nor the names of the different sorts of bread, I told 
him to give me three pennyworth of any sort. He gave me, 
accordingly, three great puffy rolls. I was surprised at the quan¬ 
tity, but took it; and having no room in my pockets, walked off 
with a roll under each arm, and eating the other. Thus I went 
up Market-street, as far as Fourth-street, passing by the door of 
Mr. Read, my future wife’s father, when she, standing at the 
door, saw me, and thought I made, as I certainly did, a most 
awkward, ridiculous appearance. Then I turned and went down 
Chesnut-street, and part of Walnut-street, eating my roll all the 
way, and coming round, found myself again at Market-street 
wharf, near the boat I came in, to which I went for a draught of 
the river water; and being filled with -one of my rolls, gave the 
other two to a woman and her child that came down the river in 
the boat with us, and were waiting to go farther. Thus refreshed, 
I walked again up the street, which, by this time had many clean- 
dressed people in it, who were all walking the same way. I joined 
them, and thereby was led into the great meeting-house of the 
Quakers, near the market. I sat down among them ; and 
after looking round awhile, and hearing nothing said, being very 
drowsy, through labour and want of rest the preceding night, 
I fell fast asleep, and continued so till the meeting broke up, 
when some one was kind enough to rouse me. This, therefore, 
was the first house I was in, or slept in, in Philadelphia. 

Here he procured work with a printer of the name of Keimer. 
He had been some months at Philadelphia, his relations in Boston 
knowing nothing of what had become of him, when his brother-in- 
law, who was the master of a trading sloop, happening to hear of 


224 


YOUNG MAN*S COMPANION. 


him in one of his voyages, wrote to him in very earnest term£, 
to entreat him to return home. The letter which he sent in 
reply to this application reached his brother-in-law when he chanced 
to be in company with Sir William Keith, the governor of the 
province; it was shown to that gentleman, who expressed con¬ 
siderable surprise on being told the age of the writer; and imme¬ 
diately said that he appeared to be a young man of promising 
parts, and that if he would set up on his own account in Phila¬ 
delphia, where the printers were wretched ones, he had no doubt 
he would succeed : for his part, he would- procure him the public 
business, and do him every service in his power. 

Encouraged by this gentleman to adopt such a plan, he set out 
for Boston on a visit to his parents, in order to procure from them 
some pecuniary aid; but a welcome reception was all he could 
obtain. Having returned to Philadelphia, Sir William offered to 
take the whole burden upon himself, and advised Franklin to make 
a voyage to England, in order to procure every thing necessary for 
a printing-office. He set sail in the year 1725 ; but soon dis¬ 
covered t'hat Sir William Keith, on whose letters of recom¬ 
mendation and credit he entirely relied, had deceived him, and he 
was obliged to obtain work as a journeyman in London for his im¬ 
mediate subsistence. While in this situation Franklin acquired 
considerable reputation by a Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, 
Pleasure and Pain; and it was the means of introducing him 
to the celebrated Dr. Mandeville, author of the fable of the Bees. 

After eighteen months' 1 residence in London, he returned to 
Philadelphia in the year 1726, and became clerk to a merchant. 
He was afterwards employed as overseer in the office of Keimer, 
his former master. Here he acquired great esteem ; and at length 
conceived the idea of setting up for himself, which he accomplished, 
by entering into a partnership with one of his companions named 
Mereditch, whose father was in circumstances to advance the 
money required. Franklin and his partner began to publish a 
newspaper, which the labours and talents of the former brought 
into repute, and they obtained the printing of the Votes and Laws 
of the Assembly. The partnership being dissolved by the departure 
of Mereditch, Franklin, by the aid of friends, was enabled to take 
the whole business upon himself, to which he added the business 
of a stationer. When the new emission of paper-money engaged 
the attention of tlie American government, Franklin wrote an 
anonymous pamphlet in defence of the measure, by which he 
acquired considerable favour among men in power. In September 
1736, he married a lady to whom he had paid his addresses before 
his visit to England. 


BIOGRAPHY. 


225 

The public library at Philadelphia was established in 1731, 
chiefly by Franklin’s exertions, and he had the satisfaction to see 
it attain to a very flourishing condition. His well-known work, 
called “ Poor Richard’s Almanack,” was begun in 1732, and 
became remarkable for the prudential maxims with which it 
abounded. Franklin’s political career commenced in 1736, when 
he was chosen clerk to the general assembly of Pennsylvania, to 
which he was re-elected for several years, and at last became a re¬ 
presentative. In 1737 lie was made postmaster of Philadelphia, 
and in a subsequent year he greatly improved the police of the 
city, by the formation of a fire company, and afterwards of an in¬ 
surance company. In the war with France, which broke out in 
1744, Franklin suggested the idea of a voluntary association for 
defence, which was instantly joined by 1200 persons. 

About this period he began his interesting experiments on 
electricity, by the result of which he acquired so distinguished a 
reputation. The library society of Philadelphia having received 
from Mr. Peter Collinson, in the year 1745, an account of the 
facts respecting electricity which at that time engrossed the at¬ 
tention of philosophers in Europe, Franklin applied himself to the 
subject with great assiduity, and in a short time he made many 
valuable and highly important discoveries, an account of which he 
published in three pieces, entitled “New Experiments and Obser¬ 
vations in Electricity, made ak Philadelphia in America.” The 
most brilliant of his discoveries was that which proved the identity 
of the electric fluid and lightning. Their similarity had been 
suspected by Abbe Nollet, and some experiments had begun to be 
made in France towards the verification of the fact, but Franklin 
completed the proof of it entirely by his own experiments ; and he 
afterwards applied his discovery to the securing of buildings from 
the effects of lightning. See Electricity , Chap. XI. Sect. 8. 

The lightning-rod was the result of some of the amusing ex¬ 
periments with which Franklin w r as, at the commencement of his 
electrical investigations, accustomed to employ his own leisure, 
and afford pleasure to his friends. In one of his letters to Mr. 
Collinson, dated so early as 1748, he expresses himself in the 
following strain, in reference to his electrical experiments. 
“ Chagrined a little that we have hitherto been able to produce 
nothing in this way of use to mankind, and the hot weather coming 
on, when electrical experiments are not so agreeable, it is proposed 
to put an end to them for this season somewhat humorously, in 
a party of pleasure on the banks of Skuylhill. Spirits at the same 
time are to be fired by a spark sent from side to side through the 
river, without any other conductor than the water, an experiment 

G G 


226 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


which we have some time since performed to the amazement of 
many. A turkey is to be killed for dinner by the electrical shock, 
and roasted by the electrical jack, before a fire kindled by the 
electrified bottle; when the healths of the famous electricians in 
England, Holland, France, and Germany, are to be drunk in 
electrified bumpers, under the discharge of guns from the electrical 
battery.'” 

Franklin’s electrical discoveries did not, on their first announce¬ 
ment, attract much attention in England; and, indeed, he had 
the mortification of learning that his paper on the similarity of 
lightning to electricity, when read by a friend to the Royal 
Society, had been only laughed at by that learned body. In 
France, however, the account that had been published in London 
of his experiments, fortunately fell into the hands of the celebrated 
naturalist, Buffon, who was so much struck with it, that he had it 
translated into French, and printed at Paris. This made it im¬ 
mediately known to all Europe; and versions of it in various 
other modern languages soon appeared, as well as one in Latin. 
In England, too, the Franklinian experiments gradually began to be 
spoken of; and, at last, even the Royal Society was induced to 
resume the consideration of the papers that had formerly been 
read to them. One of their members verified the experiment of 
bringing down lightning from the clouds ; and upon his reading 
to them an account of his success, “they soon,'’ says Franklin, 
“ made me more than amends for the slight with which they had 
before treated me. Without my having made an application for 
that honour, they chose me a member ; and voted that I should 
be excused the customary payments, which would have amounted 
to twenty-five guineas, and ever since have given me their Trans¬ 
actions gratis. They also presented me with the gold medal of 
Sir Godfrey Copley, for the year 1753, the delivery of which was 
accompanied with a very handsome speech from the president, 
Lord Macclesfield, wherein I was highly honoured.” Some years 
afterwards, when he was in this country with his son, the university 
of St. Andrews conferred upon him the degree of Doctor of Laws"; 
and its example was followed by the universities of Edinburgh and 
Oxford. He was also elected a member of many of the learned 
societies throughout Europe. 

In pursuing the remainder of Franklin’s history, we find the 
fame of the patriot vieing with that of the philosopher, in casting 
a splendour over it; and the originally poor and unknown trades¬ 
man standing before kings, associating as an equal with the most 
eminent statesmen of his time, and arranging along with them the 
wars and treaties of mighty nations. In 1747 he had been chosen 


BIOGRAPHY. 


zn 

a representative of the city of Philadelphia for the provincial 
assembly. At this time a contest subsisted between the assembly 
and the proprietaries, as to the claim of the latter to be exempted 
from public burdens. Franklin took the popular side of the 
question, by which he acquired great influence, and was regarded 
as the head of the opposition. In 1757 he set sail for London 
as agent for Pennsylvania, the assembly of that province being in- 
voled in disputes with the proprietary. It was agreed on by the 
privy council that landholders should pay their share of the public 
burdens, on condition Franklin would engage that they should 
be fairly proportioned. He continued at the British court as 
agent for his province, and acquired so great a reputation, that the 
same trust was reposed in him for Massachusets, Maryland, and 
Georgia. In the year 1762 he returned to America, where he 
received the thanks of the assembly of Pennsylvania, and a 
handsome recompense for his important services. When the 
Stamp Act occasioned so much disturbance in America, he was 
summoned to the bar of the House of Commons, to give evidence 
respecting the disposition of the people, whether he thought they 
could be induced to submit to it; and the energy and clearness of 
his representations were instrumental in procuring the repeal of 
that obnoxious measure. 

On the commencement of hostilities between Great Britain and 
the colonies, in 1775, Dr. Franklin returned to America, and was 
chosen a delegate to congress by the legislature of Pennsylvania. 
When the question of independence came to be discussed, he was 
decidedly in favour of the measure, and was instrumental in 
bringing over the public mind to the same opinon. When a ne¬ 
gotiation with France was opened, he was chosen one of the 
personages to reside at that court; and he effected a treaty with 
France of an offensive and defensive nature, in 1778, the imme¬ 
diate consequence of which was a war with Britain. He was re¬ 
called from that active station in 1785, which he had filled with so 
much ability, and chosen president of the supreme executive 
council. His increasing infirmities obliged him, however, to with¬ 
draw from all public business in 1788; and on April 17, 1790, 
he terminated his active and useful life, in the eighty-fifth year of 
his age. 

No philosopher of his age stood on a prouder eminence than 
this extraordinary man, who had originally been one of the most 
obscure of the people, and had raised himself to all this distinction 
almost without the aid of any education but such as he had given 
himself. “Who will say, after reading his story, 1 ’ it is justly 
remarked, “ that any thing more is necessary for the attainment of 


£.?3 YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

N 

knowledge than the determination to attain it ?—that there is any 
other obstacle to even the highest degree of intellectual advance¬ 
ment which may not be overcome, except a man’s own listlessness 
or indolence ? The secret of this man’s success in the cultivation 
of his mental powers was, that he was ever awake and active in that 
business; that he suffered no opportunity of forwarding it to escape 
him unimproved; that, however poor, he found at least a few pence, 
were it even by diminishing his scanty meals, to pay for the loan 
of the books he could not buy; that, however hard-wrought, he 
found a few hours in the week, were it by sitting up half the 
night after toiling all the day, to read and study them. Others 
may not have his original powers of mind: but his industry, his 
perseverance, his self-command, are for the imitation of all; and 
though few mav look forward to the rare fortune of achieving dis- 
coveries like his, all may derive both instruction and encourage¬ 
ment from his example. They who may never overtake the light, 
may at least follow its path, and guide their footsteps by its 
illumination.”— Pursuit of Knowledge , Chap. XV. 

i • 

THE RIGHT HON. GEORGE CANNING. 

This distinguished statesman was born in London, April 11, 
1770. The family of Canning was originally of Foxcote in 
Warwickshire. George, fourth son of Richard Canning of 
Foxcote, emigrated to Ireland at the commencement of the seven¬ 
teenth century. His great grandson of the same name, marrying 
a daughter of Robert Stratford, Esq. of Baltinglass, (an aunt of 
the first earl of Aldborough,) had a son named Stratford, after 
his maternal ancestors, who was the father of three sons, George, 
Paul, and Stratford : of these, the eldest gave birth to the deceased 
statesman; the second to George, now Lord Garvagh, (for whom 
his cousin procured that Irish barony in 1818 ;) and the third to 
a numerous family, including the Right Hon. Stratford Canning, 
late ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary at St. Peters¬ 
burg, and afterwards at Constantinople. 

His father dying when he was but a year old, the education of 
the future premier was superintended by his uncle, a merchant in 
London, principally engaged in the wine trade; but its expenses 
were sufficiently provided by a small estate in Ireland, which, 
though inadequate as a provision for life, was amply sufficient as a 
fund for education. His rudimental instruction Mr. Canning ac¬ 
quired at Hyde Abbey School, near Winchester, under the care 
of the Rev. Charles Richards. Even then his early compositions 
were distinguished by an extraordinary vigour of mind. At a 



IUOGRAPHY. 


229 


public exhibition he recited a prize poem on West’s picture of the 
Resurrection of Lazarus—the altar-piece of Winchester cathedral. 
At another exhibition he displayed a promise of those powers 
which were destined hereafter to command the admiration of the 
world. Previous to a vacation, a selection from the Orestes of 
Euripides was enacted, when young Canning surpassed all his as¬ 
sociates, by the judgment, sensibility, and elegance, with which he 
portrayed the madness of the conscience-stricken matricide. On 
another occasion he gave a spontaneous evidence of his extraordi¬ 
nary tenaciousness of memory, in reciting, by way of exercise,* the 
whole of the English poems of Gray. Through life Mr. Canning 
cherished the greatest respect for his early preceptor, Mr. 
Richards ; to whom he frequently evinced his grateful remem¬ 
brance, particularly by transmitting his printed speeches to Hyde 
Abbey. 

Having risen to the first class in this preparatory establishment, 
he was removed to Eton, and was instantly noticed as a boy of 
surprising genius and attainments. Ambitious of literary dis¬ 
tinction, he had the address to infuse the same spirit into some of 
his compeers. The result was very extraordinary; being no less 
than an imitation of Addison, and the constellation of wits who, 
at the beginning of the century, produced the 44 Spectator.” 
Mr. Canning was but just turned fifteen, when he laid the plan of 
a periodical paper, called 44 The Microcosm.” It was published 
in weekly numbers, from November 6th, 1786, to July 30th, 
1787, and was conducted by an association of four boys, who con¬ 
tributed to it under the signatures of A. B. C. and D. The 
papers signed A. were furnished by Mr. John Smith, the late pay¬ 
master of the navy; those signed B. were written by Mr. 
Canning; C. was the signature of Mr. Robert Smith, late 
member for Lincoln; and D. of Mr. John Hookham Frere, the 
late ambassador at Madrid. Lord Henry Spencer, (second son of 
the late Duke of Marlborough,) Mr. Joseph Mellish, Mr. Ben¬ 
jamin Wray, Mr. Capel Lofft, and Mr. Littlehalls, were also con¬ 
tributors. The contributions of Mr. Canning were eleven in 
number. One was a poem, and, considering his age, a very won¬ 
derful one, on “ The Slavery of Greecethe rest were prin¬ 
cipally of a humorous cast; and among them a burlesque piece 
of criticism on the childish ballad of 44 The Queen of Hearts,” 
possesses uncommon merit. Of this very clever publication 
Mr. Canning was also the editor, and as such disposed of the 
copyright to the publisher. 

For several years a society had periodically met in a hall 
at Eton, for the purpose of discussion. In this miniature senate 


230 


YOUNG MANS COM PANION. 


the crown and the people had their respective champions; the 
advocates were as solemn, as eager for victory, and as active in 
obtaining it, as the more mature debaters of the parliament itself. 
Mr. (now Marquis) Wellesley, Mr. (now Earl) Grey, and, at a 
subsequent period, Mr. Canning, distinguished themselves in this 
intellectual warfare. During Mr. Canning’s career at Eton, he 
was eminently distinguished, as well as the present Marquis 
. Wellesley, for his classical attainments; and the names of both 
these remarkable men are affixed to some of the most splendid 
compositions of the “ Musse Etonenses.” George Canning was 
also distinguished in the school for the more than usual juvenile 
attachment which he evinced for the principles of social liberty; 
and there are persons still living who well remember the passionate 
interest which the youthful enthusiast took in the contest for the 
representation of Windsor, which the celebrated Admiral Keppel 
carried on against the court candidate. 

During his whole life Mr. Canning delighted in his recollection 
of Eton; and assiduously kept up his connexion with that cele¬ 
brated school. His visits to the Montem were constant. At 
the Montem of 1823, he accidentally met Mr. (now Lord) 
Brougham, for the first time in public, after their escapade in the 
House of Commons. The hand of the generous secretary was 
immediately stretched out to his opponent, in the presence of a 
thousand admiring spectators. On the 4th of June of the follow¬ 
ing summer, Mr. Canning was the sitter in the “ ten-oar,” at the 
Eton regatta, a post of honour which is always reserved by the 
boys for some favoured visitor. He huzzaed again and again with 
the loudest of them, as they passed the crowded shores; and 
Eton felt proud of her scholar and her statesman. 

Having attained the highest post of honour, or, in academic phrase, 
become captain of the school of Eton, Mr. Canning, in October, 
1787, was matriculated at Oxford, as a student of Christ-church ; 
where he found himself in the midst of his Westminster antago¬ 
nists, but without exciting any other sentiment than admiration 
of his talents, and esteem for his virtues. Here also, as in former 
instances, the ripeness of his genius quickly appeared, and drew 
upon him the notice of the university. While yet, in the 
language of the schools, a freshman, and not out of his teens, he 
had the boldness to stand as a competitor for the chancellor’s 
first prize, and succeeded. This was a Latin poem, on the fol¬ 
lowing subject: “ Iter ad Meccam Religionis Causa Susceptum 
and the purity and spirit of the composition gained great 
applause. 

It was while at Oxford that Mr. Canning’s friendship com- 


BIOGRAPHY. 


231 

menccd with the Hon. Robert Banks Jenkinson, now earl of 
Liverpool, who was only of a few months older standing than 
Mr. Canning, having received his previous education at the 
Charter-house. They, (with Lord Henry Spencer, who had 
entered Christ Church at the same time,) were constantly in each 
other's society; and there acquired that mutual regard, which no 
occasional political difference at any time seriously interrupted. It 
was also to Mr. Jenkinson, though not entirely, that Mr. Canning 
was indebted for his introduction to Mr. Pitt. When, with that 
design, Mr. Canning was invited to dinner with the first earl, at 
Addiscombe-house, it was found, to the surprise and amazement 
of their host, that the two supposed stranger guests were already 
* acquainted with each other; for Mr. Pitt, (through what channel 
is not exactly known,) had some time before intimated to 
Mr. Canning his wish to become acquainted with him, and they 
had met without the intervention of any third person. 

Mr. Sheridan was at that time in the full blaze of his meteoric 
prosperity; and in consequence of his connexion with Mr. 
Canning's family, it was Mr. Canning’s good fortune to spend all 
his vacations with that wit. To Sheridan Mr. Canning was 
indebted for an introduction to some of the most distinguished 
men of the day; among others to Edmund Burke, whose 
prophetic acumen did not fail him in his auguries of Mr. Canning’s 
success as a parliamentary orator. To Sheridan Mr. Canning 
was also indebted for gaining admittance, whilst still a youth, to 
the society of Devonshire-house. He was introduced to the 
Duchess at a splendid supper, given by her Grace to Mr. Fox, 
Lord John Townshend, Lord Robert Spencer, Mr. Richardson, 
Gen. Fitzpatrick, Gen. Burgoyne, Mr. Tick ell, and other cele¬ 
brated wits of the day. On his first interview, Canning displayed 
a brilliancy and talents beyond his age. 

After taking his first degree at Oxford, Mr. Canning entered 
himself at Lincoln’s Inn, with the view of pursuing the profession 
of the law. From that intention, however, he was diverted by 
the advice of Sheridan, who had repeatedly witnessed his oratorical 
powers at one of the debating societies which at that time existed 
in the metropolis. Mr. Canning entered parliament in 1793. 
“From the political faith,” says Mr. Moore, in his life of 
Sheridan, “ in which he had been educated, under the very eye of 
Mr. Sheridan, who had long been the friend of his family, and at 
whose house he generally passed his college vacations, the line 
that he was to take in the House of Commons already, according 
to the usual course of events, was marked out for him. But his 
decision was in favour of the Minister and toryism; and after a 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


friendly and candid explanation to Mr. Sheridan, of the reasons and 
feelings that urged him to this step, he entered into terms with 
Mr. Pitt, and was by him immediately brought into parliament.” 
Sir Richard Worsley having retired, purposely to make room for 
him, Mr. Canning took his seat as member for the borough of 
Newport, in the Isle of Wight. 

He soon began to distinguish himself in parliament; and in 
May 1794, in the debate on the third reading of the Habeas 
Corpus Suspension Bill, replied with much spirit to Mr. Gray, 
(the present Lord Grey,) who had accused Mr. Pitt of duplicity 
and apostasy ; and defended the measure as indispensably re¬ 
quired by the imminent danger of the time. Mr. Canning took 
the degree of M.A. on the 5th of July, 1794. Until that 
period he had been a frequent resident at Clirist-Church. He now, 
however, discontinued that practice, and made the metropolis his 
constant abode. Mr. Fox having in the next session of parliament 
moved for a committee on the state of the nation, the motion was 
warmly opposed by Mr. Canning, who characterised the proposi¬ 
tion as being, in some points of view, useless, in others, impolitic, 
and in none, as possessing any claim to the sanction of the 
house. 

In 1796 Mr. Canning accepted of Mr. Pitt the post of under¬ 
secretary of state; and at the general election in that year, he 
was returned for the treasury borough of Wendover. At the 
same period he was appointed receiver-general of the Alienation 
Office. In the autumn of 1797, Mr. Canning, in conjunction 
with Mr. Jenkinson, (the late earl of Liverpool,) Mr. George 
Ellis, (the present Lord Seaford,) Mr. Freere, and other of his 
friends, projected “The Anti-Jacobin, or Weekly Examiner;” 
the object of which was, by the twofold operation of argument and 
ridicule, to attack the numerous journals which in that perilous 
time were advocating the cause of equality and republicanism, 
The prospectus of this work was written by Mr. Canning. Mr. 
William Gifford having been appointed the editor, the first 
number appeared on the 20th of November, 1797 ; and the pub¬ 
lication was regularly continued until the 9th of July, 1798. In 
the session of 1798, Mr. Wilberforce having moved for leave to 
bring in a bill for the abolition of the slave-trade, the motion was 
supported by Mr. Canning, in a speech of great feeling and 
ability. Mr. Canning was, in March, 1799, appointed one of the 
commissioners for managing the affairs of India. On the 8th of 
.July, 1800, he increased his fortune and interest by a marriage 
with Joanna, the youngest daughter of General John Scott, of 
Balconie. The fortune of this lady exceeded £100,000. Earlv 



BIOGRAPHY. 


233 


in the year 1801, the administration, which had so long defied the 
efforts of an able and indefatigable party, was suddenly dissolved, 
Mr. Canning, of course, resigned his official situations. The fol¬ 
lowing year he was returned member for the borough of Tralee. 
He now appeared on the opposition side of the house, and 
assailed the administration of Mr. Addington with such force of 
argument and keenness of irony, as greatly to provoke the 
zealous partisans of that gentleman. 

From this time nothing remarkable occurred in Mr. Canning's 
personal or public history, until the death of Mr. Pitt, in January, 
1806. At the funeral of that illustrious statesman, Mr. Canning 
attended as a sincere mourner; and with Mr. George Rose, and 
Mr. Spencer Perceval, bore the banners of emblems. Many 
years after this melancholy event, Mr. Canning, in a public 
speech at Liverpool, said, with great emphasis, “ In the grave of 
Mr. Pitt my political allegiance lies buried. 11 Mr. Canning was 
now returned member for Sligo; and, being again in opposition, 
had to contend with some of his former associates; and, indeed, 
to stand almost alone against what he ironically termed “ all the 
talents, all the wisdom, and all the experience of a combined host 
of Whigs and Tories, Foxites and Pittites. - ’ 1 

The year 1809 was an eventful period in Mr. Canning’s life. 
It had long been rumoured that considerable differences existed 
among some of the members of the cabinet, and in fact was as¬ 
certained in a singular manner, when, on the 21st of September, 
1809, Mr. Canning met Lord Castlereagh upon Putney Heath, 
to settle their dissensions by a duel. Lord Castlereagh gave 
the challenge, and was attended by the present Marquis of Hert¬ 
ford, Mr. Canning, by Mr. Ellis (now Lord Seaford). After 
taking t-heir ground, they fired, and missed ; no explanation taking 
place, they fired a second time, when Mr. Canning received his 
adversary’s ball in his thigh. He did not fall from the wound, 
nor was it known by the seconds that he was wounded, and both 
parties stood ready to give or receive further satisfaction, when Mr. 
Ellis, perceiving blood on Mr. Canning, the seconds interfered. 
Mr. Canning was conveyed to his house, Gloucester Lodge, at 
Brompton, where he was for some time confined ; but the bone of 
the thigh was not fractured, and Mr. Hone, who was in attendance, 
dressed the wound, which was soon after perfectly healed. This 
quarrel immediately excited a considerable sensation among the 
friends of both parties at the time. It was understood that his 
late Majesty expressed his strong, and certainly just disapprobation 
of the practice of settling ministerial disputes by sword'or pistol; 
and the Duke of Portland, as well as Mr. Canning and Lord 

H H 


234 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

Castlercagh, resigned liis official station. But although Mr. 
Canning no longer formed a part of his Majesty’s government, he 
continued actively to discharge his duties as a member of the 
House of Commons. 

Immediately on the assassination of Mr. Perceval (11th of 
May, 1812), the remaining ministers were, of course, anxiously 
employed in considering how they might best supply the loss of 
their distinguished chief and leader. Lord Liverpool was, in the 
first instance, authorized by the Prince Regent to apply to the 
Marquis Wellesley and Mr. Canning. His lordship’s overtures 
were, however, declined. The marquis of Wellesley was afterwards 
empowered by the Prince Regent to form, an administration, of 
which Mr. Canning was to be a member ; but the noble marquis 
failed to accomplish his object; nor was another attempt by Earl 
Moira more successful. Parliament having been dissolved, Mr. 
Canning offered himself as a candidate for the representation of 
Liverpool, and was every time elected, but never without strong 
opposition. 

In October 1814, Mr. Canning was appointed Ambassador 
Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the Prince Regent of Por¬ 
tugal. He accordingly repaired to Lisbon, where he resided 
until the downfal of Buonaparte at Waterloo. After that event 
Mr. Canning resigned his situation, and went to the south of 
France, for the health of some of his family, which was, in fact, 
the real motive for his going abroad at all. There he remained 
until the middle of the summer of 1816, when he returned to 
England, and, on the death of the earl of Buckingham, he was 
appointed President of the Board of Control. Early in the 
Spring of 1820 Mr. Canning lost his son, Mr. George Charles 
Canning, in the 19th year of his age, who had for a considerable 
time been in a declining state. This was a severe stroke to the 
father, who recorded his sense of the calamity in some pathetic 
lines inscribed on an elegant monument in the new burying 
ground at Kensington. 

When the message relative to the late queen Caroline was pre¬ 
sented to the house, on the 7th of June, 1820, Mr. Canning, while 
he denied that the inquiry into her Majesty’s conduct had been 
forced on by ministers, who, on the contrary, had done every 
thing in their power to avert it, allowed that much mischief must 
be the result. “Towards the illustrious personage who is the 
object of this investigation,” observed Mr. Canning, “ I feel an 
unaltered regard and affection. If there had been any injustice 
meditated towards her, no consideration on earth should have in¬ 
duced me to be a party to it. or to stand where I now stand. 


» 



BIOGRAPHY. 


235 


It is but due to those with whom I act, to say, that all that has 
been done by government with respect to her Majesty, has been 
done in the spirit of honour, candour, justice, and feeling 
Having discharged my duty in making these observations, I hope 
I may, without any dereliction of it, indulge my private feelings, 
by abstaining as much as possible from taking any part in the 
future stages of these proceedings.” Soon after, Mr. Canning 
resigned the Presidency of the Board of Control, and went abroad 
for a few weeks. 

On the recall of the marquis of Hastings from India, Mr. 
Canning was nominated Governor-general. He accordingly made 
all his arrangements for leaving the country, and went down to 
Liverpool to take leave of his friends and constituents in that 
town. . While Mr. Canning was on this valedictory visit, the 
Marquis of Londonderry put an end to his own existence on the 
12th of August, 1822, which gave a new turn to public affairs in 
England. 

On the 16th of September, 1822, Mr. Canning was appointed 
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. He continued to hold this 
office during the administration of Lord Liverpool till the year 
1827, when in the month of February the premier was suddenly 
attacked with a paralytic stroke, the permanent consequences of 
which were of such a nature as to remove the minister for ever 
from public life. The office of premier was thus unoccupied ; the 
government was left without a head; and, unfortunately, the dif¬ 
ficulties of appointing a successor, which were never small, were 
greatly increased by the very nature of the cabinet over which 
Lord Liverpool had presided. For some years, it had not been 
characterised by perfect unanimity of sentiment on more than one 
of the most important public questions. Catholic emancipation 
was a known and acknowledged source of difference of opinion 
amongst its members. It was the influence of Lord Liverpool 
alone, which had kept these discordant materials together, and by 
his removal from office, these differences were freed from the 
weight which had hitherto compressed and restrained them. The 
men who had acted in willing subordination to Lord Liverpool, 
were by no-means equally inclined to yield to each other. 

His Majesty, however, after some deliberation, had finally deter¬ 
mined that the new ministry should be; like its predecessor, divided 
in opinion on the catholic question, but that Mr. Canning, the 
leader of the Catholic party, who refused to serve under an anti¬ 
catholic premier, should be at its head. Mr. Canning proceeded 
to make his arrangements, and after some delay succeeded in 
forming an administration, but it was of short duration. The 


£36 YOUNG man’s companion. 

health of Mr. Canning had been in a very delicate state even at 
the commencement of the session, and the mental anxiety which 
followed was but little favourable to its restoration. Mr. Canning, 
too, was a man of kindly and amiable feelings; and the rupture 
of old intimacies, and the necessity of conciliating old enemies, 
where no cordial confidence could ever be reposed, brought with 
it an irritation and disappointment a thousand times more annoy¬ 
ing and exhausting, than, to such a head, the mere anxieties of 
government could ever have become. His care-worn appearance 
"betrayed that the mind was ill at ease within: mind and body 
panted equally for repose. Soon after the rising of parliament he 
was visited by an attack of illness, which seemed, however, to yield 
to medical treatment, and he went to the duke of Devonshire’s 
seat at Chiswick, to seek tranquillity and enjoy a purer air. The 
disease returned, inflammation had commenced; it proceeded with 
a violence and rapidity which set art at defiance. Mr. Canning 
expired at Chiswick (the same house in which Mr. Fox had 
breathed his last) on the morning of the 8th of August, after 
having been prime minister for only four months. 

In Mr. Canning’s death Europe lost the ablest statesman, and 
the Commons of England the finest orator of his day. Imbued 
with the very spirit of the classics, he was a most accomplished 
scholar; and though early introduced into public life, and almost 
constantly occupied, from the entrance of his manhood, in the 
details of official business, and the bickerings of party politics, 
the practical wisdom he thus treasured up, never impeded the 
felicity with which, on all occasions, he brought into play the 
favourite subjects of his youthful studies. His fancy was elegant 
and prolific ; his taste wa-s exquisite; and to it, much more than 
to strict logic, were his orations indebted for their charms and 
their effect. He seldom followed closely out any regular train of 
argumentation; he never trammelled his reasoning in the stiff 
forms of a dialectician ; but he caught with facility the general 
bearings, and striking relations of ideas: with never-failing tact 
he seized those views of his subject which were sure to tell most 
immediately upon his auditory and his opponents ; and his thoughts 
flowed from him in a stream of uninterrupted fluency, in periods 
of the most sounding and graceful declamation. Yet lie was never 
inflated or inane; it would scarcely be possible to select from his 
speeches a single sample of bombast. Accomplished in the use 
of all the arms that the rhetorician wields, his wit was the mo 3 t 
glittering and piercing of his weapons. There lie had no rival: 
that never failed him : though it excited against him many en¬ 
mities, he was indebted to it for as many triumphs. He was a 



BIOGRAPHY. 


237 

matchless debater. As a practical statesman, liis views were 
always clear and manly. He was the most unyielding opponent 
of all the schemes which, for more than thirty years, had thrown 
the world into confusion under the name of reform : and he had 
done his country much good service in maintaining the integrity of 
her existing institutions. Repossessed, moreover, the high merit 
of never being seduced by fondness for any set of ideas, into 
forgetfulness of the necessities and relations of the actual world : 
rich as he was in fancy, he seemed to use it only as the handmaid 
to practical wisdom. The later acts of his public life, before he 
became minister, had, in an especial manner, strengthened his hold 
on the admiration and favour of the country. The spirit with 
which he broke loose from any suspicious connexion with the 
Holy Alliance, the recognition of the South American republics, 
and, above all, the energy and manliness with which, in maintenance 
of the national faith, he stretched forth the national arm to the 
defence of Portugal, had completely fallen in with the feelings of 
the public, and had identified him, in some measure, with the 
dignity and character of the empire. On the other hand, it is 
true, that there were circumstances which prevented a large and 
influential portion of the people from giving him as much of 
their confidence as they willingly gave him of their admiration. 
There were parts of his public life in which his steadiness of purpose 
and consistency of conduct might be questioned; there were 
others in which it might be doubted whether perfect good faith 
to his fellow-labourers had not been sacrificed to ambition : and 
the last act of his life, that coalition, by which he chose to be 
first, through the support of former opponents, rather than to re¬ 
main second in name among former friends, w r as more than ques¬ 
tionable. Mr. Canning’s best and widest fame will always rest, 
like that of Lord Chatham, on what he performed as a foreign 
secretary. Englishmen will always remember him as a public 
servant, who in that capacity proudly maintained the honour, and 
asserted the dignity of the country among the nations; and they 
will remember him as having done that, than which the world 
presents no nobler exploit—as having made himself, by the mere 
force of talent, prime minister of England. 

BELZONI. 

G. Belzoni, one of the most celebrated travellers of the present 
century, whose indefatigable researches among the antiquities of 
Egypt will immortalize his name, was a native of Padua, and 
was descended from Roman ancestry. The troubles of Italy in 
j 801, having driven him from his native city, the greater portion 


238 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


of his youth was passed in Rome, where he was preparing to become 
a monk, when the sudden irruption of the French army into the 
ecclesiastical states, altered the course of his education, and from 
that time he led a life of wandering and vicissitude. It was his 
proficiency in hydraulics which suggested to him the project of 
his travels. He arrived in England in 1813, and for some time 
procured a livelihood by exhibiting experiments in hydraulics, &c. 
occasionally accompanied by feats of activity and strength, for 
which his Herculean mould peculiarly qualified him. Even under 
these depressing circumstances, the superiority of his character and 
manners, and the qualities of his mind, attracted the attention of 
discerning persons, who then ventured to predict that he was not 
likely to remain in obscurity. He married an English lady, who ac¬ 
companied him on his subsequent adventures, and who exhibited uni¬ 
formly a firmness in danger, and a patience in suffering, uncommon 
in her sex, and worthy of the companion of such a man. Having 
passed several years in England, and afterwards visited Portugal, 
Spain, and Malta, he was informed that an hydraulic machine 
would be of great service in Egypt, to irrigate the fields by an 
easier and more economical process than had hitherto been known 
in that country. He therefore embarked from Malta for Egypt, 
where he remained several years. During this residence, he had 
the good fortune to discover many remains of Egyptian anti¬ 
quity, an account of which was communicated in his published nar¬ 
rative. 

Having been recommended to Mr. Baghos, the principal in. 
terpreter of Mahomed Ali, the pasha of Egypt, the day was 
arranged on which Belzoni was to be presented to his highness, on 
the subject of erecting an hydraulic machine for that minister; 
but having been wantonly and savagely wounded in the leg by a 
Turkish soldier, he was confined for thirty days. On his recovery, 
however, he was at length presented to the pasha, and civilly 
received ; and an arrangement was concluded, by which he un¬ 
dertook to frame a machine, which would raise as much water with 
one ox, as the machines of the country could raise with four. 
Our traveller’s labours were carried on in the pasha’s garden at 
Soubra on the Nile, three miles from Cairo, a small house within 
the walls of the governor’s palace having been assigned to him for 
his residence. He succeeded in completing and setting the 
machine to work with one ox, which he computed would draw as 
much water as seven of the common machines of the country- 
But an accident, which took place in consequence of the obstinacy 
and carelessness of the natives, put a stop to the whole scheme. 
The Turks have a belief, that, when such accidents happen in the 




BIOGRAPHY. 


239 


commencement of any new invention, it is a bad omen. In 
consequence of this, exclusive of the prejudice against the machine 
itself, the pasha was persuaded to abandon the affair. 

Belzoni’s ardour for exploring antiquities, was not, however, 
cooled by this disappointment. Influenced by the suggestions of 
Mr. Salt, the British consul at Cairo, and of Mr. Burckhardt, 
who had generously offered to pay half the expense of his ascending 
the Nile, Belzoni departed for Thebes, where he commenced his 
arduous career of research. By their direction, and with their 
assistance, he undertook to transport the colossal head, called the 
Young Memnon, (now in the British Museum,) to England. For 
this purpose he ascended the Nile in 1817. Having visited in 
his progress thither the ruins of ancient Tentyra, on the western 
bank of the Nile, and examined with minute attention the largest 
of the three temples, whose remains still exist, and are in a fine 
state of preservation, he at length landed at Luxor, which is at a 
short distance from “ the hundred-gated city.” His approach to 
those stupendous remains seemed to him to be “ like entering a 
city of giants, who, after a long conflict, were all destroyed, leaving 
the ruins of their various temples as the only proofs of their 
former existence.” At the foot of the Libyan chain of mountains 
is a tract of rocks, called Gournou, lying to the west of Thebes, 
and extending in length about two miles, which is hollowed out 
into chambers and galleries, where the ancient inhabitants deposited 
their dead. No mines or catacombs in any part of the world can 
be compared with these astonishing places, the number, and 
enormous extent of which, attest the vast population of a city, 
whose antiquity reaches far beyond all historical notice. For 
though the ruins of Thebes afford the most complete evidence of 
the genius and amazing resources of the early Egyptians, no 
record enables us to form the slightest conjecture as to the date of 
its foundation. 

In 1820, Mr. Belzoni returned to England with numerous and 
important remains of antiquity, among which was the colossal 
bust of Memnon before mentioned. During the years 1821 and 
1822, these were exhibited at the Gothic Hall, Pall Mall, London. 
By the aid of a model on a large scale, and appropriate paintings, 
he was also able to convey in his exhibition a tolerable idea of 
the extraordinary tomb at Thebes, supposed to have been that of 
Psammis, the Egyptian monarch, which, by his persevering exertions, 
he was the first to explore. 

The following year, during the researches of Major Denham 
and Captain Clapperton, in the interior of Africa, Belzoni’s ardent 
mind prompted him to enter the same field of discovery, on his 


240 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

own account, and at his own expense. His plan appears to have 
been to proceed by the way of Gibraltar, Tangier, and Fez, to 
Tombuctoo. He acquired the confidence and good-will of the 
Moorish government; but meeting with obstacles from the jealousy 
of the British residents there, after having penetrated to north 
lat. 21°, he was obliged subsequently to alter his plan. From 
Mr. Belzoni’s own statement it appears that the expenses of his 
journey to and from Fez, and residence there, with the necessary 
presents and other articles, amounted to the sum of 1000^. 
defrayed by himself. Through the interest of the Moorish 
minister at Fez, an express dromedary had been sent from Fez 
to Tombuctoo, with money and letters for Belzoni, in case the 
caravan should already have departed for Tombuctoo. It is 
difficult to ascertain exactly what were the obstacles to his 
progress in the route which he had thus prosperously commenced. 
In his private correspondence at this time, he complains bitterly 
of the treatment he had received, and, before the termination of 
the year, had decided to alter his course, and proceed from the 
Bight of Benin northward, and join the other travellers, Clapperton 
and Denham, at Haussa. As he did not survive to accomplish' 
that important object, the results anticipated in a scientific point 
of view, from the exertions of such a man, must, however reluctantly, 
be abandoned. The feelings of his mind at the change of his 
route were expressed in the following letter to a gentleman at 
Cambridge, from Cape Coast, dated October 26, 1823, which 
was only a short time before his death. “ I write to you, my 
dear friend, by a transport which is just sailing for England, and 
send you a few lines in haste. I cannot enter at present into a 
detail of all the events which brought me to this coast, but reserve 
them till I write you more fully. I am only able now to tell you, 
that I am going to take a northern direction from the kingdom of 
Benin, straight up to Haussa. Benin is situate on the east of 
this coast, and the route I intend to take is over a tract of land 
entirely unknown, so that I hope I shall not be deemed an intruder 
in the path of northern travellers. I shall endeavour to give you 
a full account, if possible, from Benin; but I fear it will be a 
long time before you receive any of my letters from that quarter. 
If God please, I hope to meet the Niger on the east of Haussa, 
previous to my reaching the capital of that kingdom. I shall not 
fail to write to you by the first opportunity of a caravan to the 
north. I could not take many notes of what I observed at 
this place, and I am surprised that so little is known of it in 
England, or, indeed, of the settlements on this coast. In my 
voyage here, I fortunately met with an English gentleman, captain 



BIOGRAPHY". 


241 


of a man of war, a native of Plymouth, who, in consequence of 
the death of Sir R. Mends, has taken the command of the squadron 
on this coast, as senior officer. He is enthusiastic in every thing 
that relates to the discovery, and I feel myself highly indebted to 
this gentleman for the kind assistance he has afforded me in the 
furtherance of my views ; and it is grateful to me, and I thank 
God that I have met with an Englishman, who has in some 
measure balanced the injuries I have sustained from those I will, 
not name to you at Tangier. Remember me most kindly to all 
friends. I shall write to you again as soon as I am able. 11 

The gentleman here thus handsomely mentioned, was Captain 
Filmore, R. N. who landed Mr. Belzoni at Benin. He exerted 
himself arduously in assisting the intrepid traveller, and discharged 
a man from his vessel who was a native of Haussa, that he might 
accompany Mr. Belzoni on his route. The following extract of a 
letter contains most of the late particulars respecting this enter¬ 
prising and scientific individual. It is dated from British Acera, 
January 7, 1824. “On the night of the 24th of November, he 
(Mr. Belzoni) left us with Mr. Houtson, for Gato. On parting 
with us, he seemed a little agitated, particularly when the crew, 
(of the brig which brought him,) to each of whom he had made 
a present, gave him three loud cheers on leaving the vessel. 

‘ God bless you, my fine fellows, and send you a happy sight of 
your country and friends !’ was his answer. On the 3d of 
December, I received a letter from Mr. Houtson, requesting me 
to come to Benin, as Mr. Belzoni was lying dangerously ill, and, 
in case of death, wishing a second person to be present. I was 
prevented going, not only by business, but a severe fever which 
then had hold of me. On the 5th I had a second letter from 
Mr. Houtson, with the particulars of Mr. Belzoni 1 s end, and one 
from himself, almost illegible, dated December 2, requesting me 
to assist in the disposal of his effects, and to remit the proceeds 
home to his agents, Messrs. Briggs, Brothers, and Co., America 
Square, London, together with a beautiful amethyst ring he wore, 
which he seemed particularly anxious should be delivered to his 
wife, with the assurance he died in the fullest affection for her, 
as he found himself too weak to write his last wishes and adieus. 

“ Belzoni was buried at Gato the day after his decease, and a 
board with the following inscription was placed over his grave. 

Here lie the remains of 
G. Belzoni, 

Who was attacked with dysentery at Benin, 

(On his way to Haussa and Tombuctoo,) 

On the 26th November, and died at this place, December 3, 1823. 


YOUNG MAM’S COMPANION. 


242 


“ The gentlemen who placed this inscription over the grave of 
this intrepid and enterprising traveller, hope that every European 
visiting this spot, will cause the ground to be cleared, and the 
fence round the grave repaired if necessary.” 

There is scarcely a foreigner who has ever visited England, 
that has excited a more lively interest than Belzoni. In his 
person and mind, he seemed to combine the qualities which 
constitute the hero. A vigorous constitution and a muscular 
frame, a temperament of mind equally proof against petty diffi¬ 
culties and great discouragements, and a state of the nervous 
system so happily fortified, as to carry him along undismayed by 
danger, and untired with toil, seem to have concurred in sustaining 
him through the course of his herculean achievements. In stature 
he was above six feet and a half, and possessed of great bodily 
strength. His manners and deportment were marked by great 
suavity and mildness, and he had a genuine love for science in all 
its branches. He was brave, ardent, and persevering in pursuit of 
his objects; and his decease at the moment of a strong hope of 
success, must be deeply felt by all who estimate the true interests 
of science and the light of discovery at their due value. 

SIR H. DAVY. 

Sir H. Davy, the celebrated chemical philosopher, was bom 
at Penzance, in Cornwall, in the year 1779. His father was b* 
trade a carver in wood, and joiner, but he enjoyed a small patrh 
mony, which being amply competent for his limited desires, we do 
not find that he attended much to his profession. Young Davy, 
having received the rudiments of a classical education under 
Dr. Cardew, of Truro, was placed with a professional gentleman 
named Tonkin, at Penzance, that he might acquire a knowledge 
of the profession of a surgeon and apothecary. His master, 
however, soon became dissatisfied with his new pupil; instead of 
attending to the duties of the surgery, Humphrey was expe¬ 
rimenting in the garret; and upon one occasion, he produced an 
explosion that put the doctor and his phials in jeopardy. At length 
a negotiation between the parents and the master commenced, 
with a view of releasing the parties from their engagement, and 
Humphrey returned home. It is not difficult to understand how 
it happened, that a person endowed with the genius and sensi¬ 
bilities of Davy, should have had his mind directed to the studv 
of mineralogy and chemistry, when we consider the nature and 
scenery of the country in which accident had planted him. 
Accordingly we find him from this time eagerly pursuing those 


BIOGRAPHY. 


^48 

studies. The first original experiment performed by him at 
Penzance, was for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the 
air contained in the bladders of sea-weed. His instruments, 
however, were of the rudest description, manufactured by himself 
out of the motley materials which fell in his way; the pots and 
pans of the kitchen were appropriated without ceremony, and even 
the phials and gallipots of his master were, without the least 
remorse, put in requisition. 

A prominent circumstance in Davy’s life was his introduction 
to Mr. Gilbert, the distinguished and popular president of the 
Royal Society. Mr. Gilbert’s attention was, from some trivial 
cause, attracted to the young chemist, as he was carelessly lounging 
over the gate of his father’s house. A person in the company of 
Mr. Gilbert observed, that the boy in question was young Davy, 
who was much attached to chemistry. “To chemistry !” said 
Mr. Gilbert, “ if that be the case, I must have some conversation 
with him.” Mr. Gilbert, who possessed a strong perception of 
character, soon discovered ample proofs of genius in the youth, 
and therefore offered him the use of his library, or any other 
assistance that he might require, for the pursuit of his studies. 
Here he was also introduced to Mr. Watt, and Dr. Beddoes. 
The latter had just established his Pneumatic Institution of 
Bristol, and required an assistant in his laboratory ; the situation 
was offered to Davy, and by him eagerly accepted. Davy was 
now constantly engaged in the prosecution of new experiments ; 
in the completion of which, as he himself informs us, he was 
greatly aided by the conversation and advice of Dr. Beddoes. 
He was also occasionally assisted by Mr. W. Clay field, to whom 
he was indebted for the invention of a mercurial air-holcler, by 
which he was enabled to collect and measure the various gases 
submitted to examination. In the course of these investigations, 
the respirability and singularly intoxicating effects of nitrous 
oxide were first discovered, which led to a new train of research; 
his inquiries were also extended to the different substances con¬ 
nected with nitrous oxide, such as nitrous gas, nitrous acid, 
ammonia, &c.; and he was enabled to present a clear and satis¬ 
factory history of the combinations of oxygen and nitrogen. 
These interesting results were published in a separate volume, 
entitled, “ Researches, Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly con¬ 
cerning Nitrous Oxide, and its Respiration; by Humphrey 
Davy, Superintendent of the Medical Pneumatic Institution.” 

Soon after this, about the year 1801, Count Rumford having 
made inquiry for some rising philosopher who might fill the che¬ 
mical chair in the newty-established institution of Great Britain, 


2U 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Davy was proposed, and immediately elected. In this new scene 
it is admitted by his greatest admirers that he lost something of 
that simplicity of manners which constituted the former charm of 
his character, but he still pursued his studies with undeviating 
steps. While he assumed somewhat of the airs and garb of a 
man of fashion, and was frequently attracted by the charms of 
the ball-room, he did not abandon the pursuits of the laboratory. 
So popular did he become under the auspices of the Duchess of 
Gordon, and other leaders of fashion, that their soirees were con¬ 
sidered incomplete without his presence; and yet the crowds that 
repaired to the institution in the morning, were, day after day, 
gratified by newly-devised and instructive experiments, performed 
with the utmost address, and explained in language at once the 
most intelligible and the most eloquent. 

About a. d. 1803, two years after his introduction to the 

scientific world, having been elected professor of chemistry to the 

Board of Agriculture, Davy commenced a series of lectures 

before its members ; and which he continued to deliver everv 
• . . . J 
successive session for ten years, modifying and extending their 

views, from time to time, in such a manner as the progress of 
chemical discovery might require. These discourses were pub¬ 
lished in the year 1813, at the request of the president and 
members of the board ; and they form the only complete work 
we possess on the subject of agricultural chemistry. 

In the year 1803, Davy was elected a fellow of the Royal 
Society; he subsequently became its secretary, and lastly, its 
president. During a period of five and twenty years, he con¬ 
stantly supplied its transactions with papers; and it is not too 
much to say, that no individual philosopher, in any age or country, 
ever contributed so largely in extending truth, or ever achieved 
so much in eradicating error. It is on the experiments detailed 
in his Chemical Philosophy, that the most correct views now 
entertained in relation to electricity, magnetism, &c., are chiefly 
founded, and to these also we may trace the rise of the new 
science of electro-magnetism. 

O 

Sir H. Davy spent a large portion of the latter years of his 
life in travelling, or in transient residences in different parts of 
the continent of Europe. In France his name and character 
have ever been treated with a degree of respect almost amounting 
to veneration. He died at Geneva in July, 1829, in the fiftieth 
year of his age, and a monument has been erected to his memory 
m Westminster Abbey. 


BIOGRAPHY. 


245 


Section II.— Naval and Military Men. 

COLUMBUS. 

Christopher Columbus, or Colon, the well known navigator, 
and discoverer of America, as is generally agreed, was a citizen of 
the republic of Genoa, though other countries have claimed the 
honour of giving him birth, but the exact place of his nativity 
has never been ascertained with certainty. In the life of Columbus, 
written by his son Don Ferdinand, his letter to the king and 
queen of Portugal are preserved, which prove that he was born 
in the year 1147. It is doubtful whether the family from which 
he descended w r as of any rank ; but however this may be, it is 
certain that at the time of his birth, his parents were in indigent 
circumstances. They were seafaring people, and Columbus having 
discovered, in his early youth, both talents and inclinatic*i for that 
way of life, they contrived to have him instructed in every thing 
which was needful to a skilful navigator. Having attained with 
surprising quickness a competent knowledge of geometry, astro¬ 
nomy, and the theory of navigation, he w T ent to sea at the age of 
fourteen. His first voyages were to those parts of the Mediter¬ 
ranean frequented by the Genoese, after which he took a voyage 
to Iceland, and proceeded further north, advancing several degrees 
within the polar circle. His fortune was not much improved by 
these voyages, but he obtained by them a great accession of skill 
and experience, and began to taste the delight arising from the 
consciousness of having done what no one had before attempted. 
After this, Columbus entered into the service of a sea captain o,f 
his own name and family. With him he continued for several 
years, no less distinguished for his courage than his experience as 
a sailor. At length, in an obstinate engagement off the coast of 
Portugal, the vessel on board which he served took fire ; Columbus 
threw himself into the sea, laid hold of a floating oar, and by the 
support of it, and his dexterity in swimming, he reached the shore, 
though about two leagues distant. After this disaster, Columbus 
repaired to Lisbon, where he married a daughter of Bartholomew 
Perestrello, one of the captains employed by prince Henry in his 
early navigations, and who had discovered and planted the islands 
of Porto Santo and Madeira. By the perusal of the journals and 
charts of this experienced navigator, Columbus was inspired with 
an irresistible desire of visiting unknown countries. At this period 
the great object of inquiry was the discovery of a passage by sea 
to the East Indies. The danger and tediousness of the passage 


246 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 

proposed by the Portuguese round the Cape of Good Hope, set 
Columbus on considering whether a more direct way might not 
be discovered; and, after reasoning upon the facts of the rotun¬ 
dity of the earth, the small proportion of it occupied by the 
continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the probability that 
the remainder was not wholly a barren ocean, he at length came 
to the conclusion, that, by sailing across the Atlantic Ocean, 
directly towards the west, new countries, which probably formed 
a part of the vast continent of India, must infallibly be discovered. 
This conclusion was strengthened by the mistakes of the ancient 
geographers respecting the most eastern parts of Asia, which they 
supposed to extend much farther to the east than they really do. 
Columbus naturally inferred that these countries might be visited 
by sailing in a westerly direction. In 1474, he communicated 
his ideas on this subject to his contemporary Paul, a physician 
of Florence, a man eminent for his knowledge in cosmography 
and geometry. He approved of the plan, suggested several facts 
in confirmation of it, and warmly encouraged Columbus to per¬ 
severe in an undertaking so laudable, and which must redound 
so much to the honour of his country, and the benefit of Europe. 

The first step necessary to the prosecution of his design was 
to secure the patronage of some of the European powers. Many 
years were spent in fruitless attempts to accomplish this end, and 
Columbus was treated as a visionary, who would doubtless perish 
in making so desperate an attempt. At length, however, he 
gained the approbation of Isabella, Queen of Portugal, and a 
treaty was signed with Columbus on the 17th of April, 1492. 
The chief articles of it were, that Columbus should be constituted 
admiral in all the seas, islands, and continents he should discover, 
with the same power and prerogatives that belonged to the admiral 
of Castile within the limits of his jurisdiction. He was also 
appointed viceroy in all the countries he should conquer; and a 
tenth of their products was granted to him for ever. All con¬ 
troversies or lawsuits with respect to mercantile transactions, were 
to be determined by the sole authority of Columbus, or of judges 
to be appointed by him. 

On the 3d of August, Columbus set sail a little before sunrise, 
in presence of a vast crowd of spectators, who sent up their sup¬ 
plications to heaven for the prosperous issue of the voyage, which 
they wished rather than expected. On the 1st of October they 
were, according to the admiral's reckoning, 770 leagues to the west 
of the Canaries : but, lest his men should be intimidated by the 
prodigious length of the navigation, he gave out that they had 
proceeded only 584 leagues ; and fortunately for Columbus, 





BIOGRAPHY. 


247 

neither his own pilot, nor those of the other ships, had skill suffi¬ 
cient to correct this error, and discover the deceit. They had 
now been above three weeks at sea, and had proceeded far beyond 
what former navigators had attempted or deemed possible. During 
the voyage their commander had from time to time flattered and 
amused them with the appearance of land, but this had altogether 
been illusive, and their prospect of success seemed now to be as 
distant as ever. This made an impression at first upon the 
ignorant and timid only, but extending by degrees to such as 
were better informed or more resolute, the contagion spread at 
length from ship to ship. From secret whispers or murmurings 
they proceeded to open cabals, and public complaints. They 
taxed their sovereign with inconsiderate credulity, in paying such 
regard to the vain promises and rash conjectures of an indigent 
foreigner, as to hazard the lives of so many of her own subjects 
in prosecuting a chimerical scheme. In spite of the arguments of 
Columbus, they all agreed that he should be compelled by force 
to return to Spain. Some of the more audacious proposed, as 
the most expeditious and certain method of getting rid at once 
of his remonstrances, to throw him into the sea; being persuaded 
that, upon their return to Spain, the death of an unsuccessful 
projector would excite but little concern, and be inquired into 
with no curiosity. 

Columbus was fully sensible of his perilous situation. He had 
observed, with great uneasiness, the fatal operation of ignorance 
and fear in producing disaffection among his crew, and saw that 
it was now ready to burst out into open mutiny. He retained, 
however, perfect presence of mind. He affected to seem ignorant 
of their machinations. Notwithstanding the agitation and solici¬ 
tude of his mind, he appeared with a cheerful countenance, like a 
man satisfied with the progress which he had made, and confident 
of success. Sometimes he employed all the arts of insinuation to 
soothe his men ; sometimes he endeavoured to work upon their 
ambition or avarice, by magnificent descriptions of the fame and 
wealth they were about to acquire. On other occasions he assumed 
atone of authority, and threatened them with vengeance from their 
sovereign, if, by their dastardly behaviour, they should defeat his 
noble effort to promote the glory of God, and to exalt the Spanish 
name above that of any other nation. Even with seditious sailors 
the words of a man whom they had been accustomed to reverence, 
were weighty and persuasive; and not only restrained them from 
those violent excesses which they meditated, but prevailed with 
them to accompany their admiral for some time longer. 

As they proceeded, the indications of approaching land seemed 


248 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


to be more certain, and excited hope in proportion. The birds 
began to appear in flocks, making towards the south-west. Co¬ 
lumbus, in imitation of the Portuguese navigators, who had been 
guided in several of their discoveries by the motion of birds, 
altered his course from due west towards that quarter whither they 
pointed their flight. But after holding on for several days in this 
new direction, without any better success than formerly, having 
seen no object during thirty days but the sea and sky, the hopes 
of his companions subsided faster than they had risen; their fears 
revived with additional force; impatience, rage, and despair, ap¬ 
peared in every countenance. Columbus perceived that it would be 
of no avail to have recourse to any of his former arts, which, having 
been tried so often, had lost their effect; and that it was impossible 
to rekindle any zeal for the success of the expedition among men 
in whose breasts fear had extinguished every generous sentiment. 
He therefore promised solemnly to his men that he would comply 
with their request, provided they would accompany him, and obey 
his commands for three days longer; and if, during that time, 
land were not discovered, he would then abandon the enterprise, 
and direct his course towards Spain. Enraged as the sailors were, 
and impatient to turn their faces again towards their native country, 
this proposition did not appear to them unreasonable. Nor did 
Columbus hazard much in confining himself to a term so short. 
The presages of discovering land were now so numerous and 
promising, that he deemed them infallible. For some days the 
sounding line reached the bottom, and the soil which it brought 
up indicated land to be at no great distance. The flocks of birds 
increased ; and were composed not only of sea fowl, but of such 
land birds as could not be supposed to fly far from the shore. 
From these symptoms, Columbus was so confident of being near 
land, that, on the evening of the 11th of October, after public 
prayers for success, he ordered the sails to be furled, and the ship 
to lie by, keeping strict watch lest they should be driven ashore 
in the night. 

During this interval of suspense and expectation no man shut 
his eyes, all kept upon deck, gazing intently towards that 
quarter where they expected to discover the land which had been 
so long the object of their wishes. About two hours before mid¬ 
night, Columbus, standing on the forecastle, observed a light at a 
distance, and privately pointed it out to Pedro Guttierez, a page 
of the queen’s wardrobe. Guttierez perceived it, and calling to 
Salcedo, comptroller of the queen, all three saw it in motion, as 
if it were carried from place to place. A little after midnight the 
joyful sound of Land ! Land ! was heard from the Pinta, which 




BIOGRAPHY. 


249 

kept always ahead of the other ships. But having been so often 
deceived by fallacious appearances, every man was become slow of 
belief; and waited, in all the anguish of uncertainty and im¬ 
patience, for the return of day. As soon as morning dawned, all 
doubts and fears were dispelled. From every ship an island was 
seen about two leagues to the north, whose flat and verdant fields, 
well stored with wood, and watered with many rivulets, presented 
the aspect of a delightful country. The crew of the Pinta 
instantly began the Te Deum, as a hymn of thanksgiving to God ; 
and were joined by those of the other ships, with tears of joy and 
transports of congratulation. This office of gratitude to Heaven, 
was followed by an act of justice to their commander. They 
threw themselves at the feet of Columbus, with feelings of self- 
condemnation mingled with reverence. They implored him to 
pardon their ignorance, incredulity, and insolence, which had 
created him so much unnecessary disquiet, and had so often ob¬ 
structed the prosecution of his well-concerted plan ; and passing, 
in the warmth of their admiration, from one extreme to another, 
they now pronounced the man whom they had so lately reviled and 
threatened, to be a person inspired by Heaven with sagacity and 
fortitude more than human, in order to accomplish a design sc 
far beyond the ideas and conceptions of all former ages. As soon 
as the sun rose, all their boats were manned and armed. They 
rowed towards the island with their colours displayed, with warlike 
music, and other martial pomp. As they approached the coast, 
they saw it covered with a multitude of people, whom the novelty 
of the spectacle had drawn together, whose attitudes and gestures 
expressed wonder and astonishment at the strange objects which 
presented themselves to their view. Columbus was the first 
European who set foot in the new world which he had discovered. 
He landed in a rich dress, and with a naked sword in his hand. 
His men followed, and, kneeling down, they all kissed the ground 
which they had so long desired to see. They next erected a 
crucifix, and prostrating themselves before it, returned thanks to 
God for conducting their voyage to such a happy issue. This was 
one of the Bahama Islands ; to which he gave the name of San 
Salvador, and took possession of it in the name of their catholic 
majesties. In this first voyage he discovered several other of the 
Lucayo or Bahama Islands, with those of Cuba and Hispaniola, 
or St. Domingo. 

Having visited several of the West India Islands, and settled 
a colony in Hispaniola, he again set sail for Spain ; and after es¬ 
caping great dangers from violent tempests, arrived at the port of 
Palos, on the 15th of March, 1493. As soon as Columbus’s ship 

K K 


250 


YOUNG man’s COMPANION. 


was discovered approaching, the inhabitants of Palos ran eagerly to 
the shore, where they received the admiral with royal honours. The 
court was then at Barcelona, and Columbus took care immediately 
to acquaint the king and queen of his arrival. They were no less 
delighted than astonished with this unexpected event. Every 
mark of honour that could be suggested by gratitude or admiration 
was conferred on Columbus ; and former capitulation was confirmed, 
his family was ennobled, and a fleet was ordered to be equipped, 
to enable him to go in quest of those more opulent countries which 
he still expected to find. Notwithstanding all this respect, how¬ 
ever, Columbus was regarded with jealousy by Ferdinand and his 
courtiers. The commission allowed to Columbus was thought too 
ample, and the powers entrusted to him too great. The colonists 
he carried over with him became unreasonable and unmanageable, 
so that he was obliged to use some severities with them ; and 
complaints of his cruelty were made to the court of Spain. 
Francis de Bovadilla, a knight of Calatrava, was at length appointed 
to inquire into the conduct of Columbus, with orders, if he could 
prove any charge against him, to supersede him, and assume the 
office of governor of Hispaniola. The consequence of this was 
as might be expected, that Columbus was sent to Spain in 
chains. From these he was freed by Ferdinand, who was forced 
into a sense of shame by the indignation which the people did not 
hesitate to express; and an opportunity was granted him of vin¬ 
dicating his innocence. He was, however, deprived of all power, 
and notwithstanding his great services, and the solemnity of the 
agreement between him and Ferdinand, Columbus never could 
obtain the fulfilment of any part of the treaty. It is impossible 
to read the account of the proceedings against this noble-minded 
man with tolerable patience. He was afterwards employed in voy¬ 
ages to the western continent. At length, however, exhausted with 
fatigue and disappointment, he died at Valladolid in 150b*. The 
following account of his death is from a work which lias only 
lately appeared in England, entitled “ Memorials of Columbus ; 
now first published from the Original Manuscripts, by order of the 
Decurions of Genoa. By D. G. B. Spotorno.” 

“ Overcome by the feelings of the ingratitude he had experienced, 
his constitution worn out by the gout and his past fatigues, and 
dejected in his mind at seeing himself thus poor and abandoned, 
after having opened the new hemisphere to the Spanish nation, 
this great man departed this life with sentiments of the greatest 
devotion, on the 20th of May, 1506, at \ ailadolid. His corpse was 
removed to Saville, and buried in the great church of that city, 
with great funeral pomp ; and by order of King Ferdinand, whose 


BIOGRAPHY. 


251 


jealousy his death had extinguished, was honoured with a marble 
monument, with the following epitaph engraved upon it* 

A Castilla y a Leon 
Nuevo Mundo dio Colon. 

(To Castille and to Leon a new world gave Colon.) 

“ This is the only inscription worthy of the immortal discoverer 
of the new world. The glory of the Genoese hero will be always 
unparalleled. A conqueror, says Bossi, may arise to surpass 
Alexander; a poet to excel Virgil; but no one can ever rival 
Columbus, because no new hemisphere remains to be discovered. 11 

It is supposed that his race is extinct; nor is there any authentic 
portrait to transmit to future ages the lineaments of this ex¬ 
traordinary man. In default of the latter, the Genoese have 
composed, from the written descriptions, a likeness which surmounts 
the monument they have erected to his honour, and two prints of 
which adorn the volume alluded to. 

Among the documents in the appendix to this work is the 
following most interesting paper, entitled “Copy of a Letter written 
by the Admiral, to the Nurse of the Prince Don John, (to whom 
be glory,) in the year 1500, on his arrival from the Indies as a 
prisoner. 11 In this, Columbus pours forth his grievances in a 
plain and manly way, which, while it carries conviction to the un¬ 
derstanding, melts the heart with pity, or fills it with indignation. 

“If, 51 he begins, “my complaint against the world is new, its custom 
of ill-treating me is old. A thousand combats I have had with it, 
and in all have resisted successfully until the present, in which 
neither arms nor prudence have availed me; it keeps me cruelly 
overwhelmed. My trust in Him who created all, alone supports 
me; his assistance I have ever found near at hand. I entered 
with the most sincere affection into the services of their highnesses, 
and I have rendered them such service as was never seen or heard 
of before. Seven years were passed in treaty, and nine in exe¬ 
cution. Most extraordinary and memorable events took place 
during that time, of which you can have no conception. I declare, 
upon my honour, that there is not one being, however low, who 
has not tried to insult and degrade me. Thank Heaven ! there 
are some persons who disapprove of it. Had I robbed the Indies, 
or the land contiguous to it, and which is now talked of at the 
altar of Saint Peter, and given them to the Moors, they could not 
have shown greater enmity in Spain against me. Who would 
have believed this of a country, which has always been so re¬ 
nowned for its generosity!’’ 


252 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


He then refutes seriatim all the idle or villanous charges brought 
against him, and clearly explains his actions and motives. He 
says, “ Having experienced greater mischief from the calumnies of 
individuals, than advantage from my long services, and the privi¬ 
leges granted to me, it would be an act of charity if their high¬ 
nesses would be pleased to dismiss a number of those who have 
occasioned my sufferings, and my honour would be re-established, 
and made manifest to the whole world; for such is the quality of 
the undertaking, that it increases daily in fame and reputation. I 
ought to be judged as a captain, who went forth from Spain to the 
Indies to conquer a numerous and warlike people, whose customs 
and ideas are entirely different from ours, inhabiting a rugged and 
mountainous country, without any regular towns like our own ; by 
God’s blessing I have already brought under the dominion of the 
King and Queen, our lords, another world; by which Spain, 
which was looked upon as poor, is become very rich. I ought to 
be judged as a captain, who for a length of time, up to this very 
day, have borne arms without ever quitting them; and by real 
warriors, such as myself, and not by lawyers, unless they were 
Greeks and Romans, or any modern nation; of such there are so 
many great and noble ones in Spain. To be judged in any other 
way is doing me great injustice, as there are no towns nor regular 
community in the Indies.” 


DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH. 

John Churchill, frequently called the renowned Duke of Marl¬ 
borough, was the second son of Sir AVinston Churchill, a gen¬ 
tleman who had suffered during the civil war, and was born at 
Ashe, in Devonshire, in 1650. His father introduced him at 
court while very young, and he was made page of honour to the 
Duke of York, afterwards king James II., when only twelve years 
of age. In 1666 he was made an ensign in the guards during 
the first Dutch war; and afterwards improved himself greatly in 
the military art at Tangier. In 1672 Mr. Churchill attended the 
Duke of Monmouth, who commanded a body of auxiliaries in the 
French service, and was soon after made a captain in his grace’s 
regiment. At the siege of Nimeguen, which happened in that 
campaign, he distinguished himself so much that he was taken 
notice of by the celebrated Marshal Turenne, who bestowed on 
him the name of “ the handsome Englishman.” In 1673 he was at 
the siege of Maestricht, where he displayed so much courage, that 
the king of France made him a public acknowledgment of his 


BIOGRAPHY 


25$ 


services ; and the duke of Monmouth, who had the direction of 
the attack, told king Charles II. that he owed his life to Mr. 
Churchill’s conduct. 

On his return home the king promoted him to the rank of 
Lieutenant-Colonel, and the duke of York made him gentleman 
of his bed-chamber, and master of the robes. The second Dutch 
war being over, Colonel Churchill was again obliged to pass his 
days at court, where he conducted himself with great prudence 
and circumspection in the factious times that ensued. 

In the beginning of the year 1679, when the duke of York 
was constrained to retire from England to the Low Countries, 
Colonel Churchill attended him, as he did throughout all his pere¬ 
grinations, till he was suffered to reside again in London. While 
he waited upon the duke in Scotland, he had a regiment of 
dragoons given him; and in 1681 he paid his addresses to 
Mrs. Sarah Jennings, daughter of Richard Jennings, Esq. of 
Sandridge, in Hertfordshire, one of the most handsome and 
accomplished ladies of the court, and then in attendance on the 
princess, afterwards Queen Anne. 

The first use made by his royal highness of his interest, after 
his return to court, was to obtain a title for his favourite, who, by 
letters patent, bearing date on the first of December, 1682, was 
created Baron Churchill of Aymouth, in Scotland, and also 
appointed colonel of the third troop of guards. 

He was continued in all his posts by that prince, when James 
II. He assisted at the coronation, on the 23d of April, 1685 ; 
and in May following was created a peer of England, by the title 
of Baron Churchill, of Sandridge, in the county of Hertford. 

In June, Lord Churchill, being then lieutenant-general of his 
majesty’s forces, was ordered into the west, to suppress the duke 
of 'Monmouth’s rebellion; which he did in a month’s time, with 
an inconsiderable body of horse, and took the duke himself 
prisoner. He was extremely well received by the king at his 
return from this victory; but soon discerned his majesty’s inten¬ 
tion to establish the Roman Catholic religion ; and therefore 
abandoned the royal cause, and joined that of the prince of 
Orange. 

Lord Churchill was graciously received by that prince ; and it 
is supposed to have been in consequence of his lordship’s solici¬ 
tations that Prince George of Denmark went over to him, as his 
consort, the Princess Anne, did soon after, by the advice of Lady 
Churchill. He was entrusted, in that critical conjuncture, by the 
prince of Orange, first to re-assemble his troop of guards at 
London, and afterwards to reduce some lately raised regiments, 


254 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

and to new model the army; for which purpose lie was invested 
with the rank and title of lieutenant-general. 

Lord Churchill was one of the peers who voted that the throne 
was vacant; and, in consequence, the prince and princess of 
Orange being declared king and queen of England, upon the 6th 
. of February, 1689, his lordship was, on the 14th, sworn of their 
privy-council, and one of the gentlemen of the bed-chamber to 
the king; and, on the 9th of April following, was raised to the 
dignity of earl of Marlborough, in the county of Wilts. 

He assisted at the coronation of their majesties, and was soon 
after made commander-in-chief of the English forces sent over to 
Holland. He commanded at the battle of Walcourt, in the 
province of Namur, which was fought on the 15th of August, 
1689 ; and gave such extraordinary proofs of his skill, that Prince 
Waldeck, speaking in his commendation to King William, 
declared, 44 That he saw more into the art of war in a day, than 
some generals in many years.” 

Yet all his services did not hinder his being disgraced in a very 
sudden manner, in 1691 ; for, being in waiting at court, as lord 
of the bed-chamber, and having introduced to his majesty Lord 
George Hamilton, he was soon followed to his own house by that 
nobleman, with this short and surprising message, “ That the king 
had no farther occasion for his servicesthe more surprising, as 
his majesty, just before, had not discovered the least coldness or 
displeasure towards him. The cause of this disgrace is supposed 
to have proceeded from his too close attachment to the interest of 
the Princess Anne. 

This unexpected blow was followed by an event of a more ex 
traordinary nature; for the earl and several other noblemen were 
committed to the tower upon a charge of high treason, which 
eventually proved to be a forgery; the lords were released, ar.d 
the matter ended in a prosecution, on their parts, of the offenders. 

After Queen Mary’s death, when the interest of the two courts 
were brought to a better agreement, King William thought fit 
to recall the earl of Marlborough to his privy-council; and in June, 
1698, appointed him governor to the duke of Gloucester, with 
this extraordinary compliment, 44 Make him but what you are, and 
my nephew will be all I wish to see him.” 

The earl discharged the important duty of governor to the 
young prince in a manner equally satisfactory to the king and the 
nation; and great hopes were conceived of the promising genius 
of the royal pupil, when he was seized with a fever, occasioned by 
his overheating himself on his birthday, the 24th of July, 1700, 
and on the 29th it took him off, in the lltli year of his age. 


BIOGRAPHY. 


255 


I 


Soon after tlie death of the duke of Gloucester, King 
William made the earl of Marlborough commander-in-chief of 
the British forces in Holland, and ambassador-extraordinary to 
the States General; and this was one of the last marks of honour 
the earl received from King William, except the recommendation 
of his lordship to the Princess Anne, a little before his death, as 
the most proper person to be trusted with the command of the 
army which was to protect the liberty of Europe. 

In March, 1702, about a week after the king’s death, he was 
elected knight of the most noble order of the garter; and soon 
after declared captain-general of all her majesty’s forces in England 
and abroad. War having been declared, the earl took the com¬ 
mand on the 20th of June ; and, in this single campaign, made 
himself master of the castles of Gravenbroeck and Wserts; the 
towns of Venlo, Ruremond, and Stevenswsert; together with the 
city and citadel of Liege, which last was taken sword in hand. 
On his return to England after the campaign, he was created 
marquis of Blandford, and duke of Marlborough, with a pension 
of <£5000 per annum. 

Early in the campaign of 1704, the duke embarked for 
Holland; where, staying about a month to adjust the necessary 
steps, he began his march towards the heart of Germany, and after 
a conference held with Prince Eugene of Savoy and Prince Louis 
of Baden, he arrived before the strong entrenchments of the 
enemy at Schellenburg, very unexpectedly, on the 21st of June ; 
and, after an obstinate and bloody battle lie entirely routed them. 
It was on this occasion that the emperor wrote the duke a letter with 
his own hand, acknowledging his great services, and offering him 
the title of a prince of the empire, which he modestly declined, 
till the queen afterwards commanded him to accept of it. 

The duke made the best advantage of his success, and having 
advanced with the confederate army within a league of Augsburg, 
where the elector of Bavaria was securely encamped under the 
cannon of that city, his grace so effectually cut off his communi¬ 
cation with his electoral dominions, that seeing his subjects left to 
the mercy of the confederate army, he had actually agreed with 
the duke of Marlborough to sign a treaty of peace, and abandon 
the French interest, when he received the news that Marshal 
Tallard, who commanded the French army, was on the point of 
joining him, which he did soon after. This change of affairs brought 
on the famous battle of Hochstedt, a town near the village of 
Blenheim ; it was fought on the 13th of August, 1704, and the 
confederate army, under the command of Prince Eugene and the 
duke of Marlborough, gained a complete victory over the French 


256 


YOUNG man's COMPANION. 


and the Bavarians. More than 10,000 French and Bavarians 
were killed in this memorable battle; near 10,000 were wounded 
or drowned in the Danube ; Marshal Tallard, the commander in 
chief of the French forces, was taken prisoner, and with him 
13,000 of the combined army ; 100 pieces of cannon, 24 mortars, 
129 colours, 171 standards, 17 pairs of kettle-drums, 3600 tents, 
34 coaches, 300 mules laden with provisions, ammunition, and 
baggage, 2 bridges of boats, and 15 barrels and 8 casks of 
silver, were the spoils of the day. But what is still more re¬ 
markable, the victors lost only 4500 men killed, and about 8000 
wounded or taken prisoners. This battle is gouerally styled in 
history the battle of Blenheim ; though it is sometimes called that 
of Hochstedt. 

After this glorious action, by which the empire was saved, and 
the whole electorate of Bavaria conquered, the duke continued his 
pursuit till he forced the French to repass the Rhine. Then 
Prince Louis of Baden laid siege to Landau, while the duke and 
Prince Eugene covered it: but it was not taken till the 12th of 
November. The duke made a tour also to Berlin; and, by a short 
negotiation, suspended the disputes between the king of Prussia 
and the Dutch, by which he gained the good will of both parties. 

When the campaign was over he returned to Holland, and on 
the 14th of December arrived in England. He brought over with 
him Marshal Tallard, and twenty-six other officers of distinction, 
and the colours : which, by her majesty's order, were put up in 
Westminster Hall. 

He was received by the queen and her royal consort with the 
highest marks of esteem, and had the solemn thanks of both houses 
of parliament. Besides this the commons addressed her majesty 
to perpetuate the memory of this victory: which she did, by 
granting Woodstock, with the hundred of Wootton, to him and 
his heirs for ever. This was confirmed by an act of parliament 
which passed on the 14th of March following, with this remarkable 
clause, “ That they should be held by the duke and his heirs, on 
condition of tendering to the queen, her heirs, and successors, on 
the 2d of August, every year, for ever, at the Castle of Windsor, a 
standard with three fleurs-de-lis , the arms of France, painted thereon.” 

The comptroller of the queen’s works was likewise ordered to 
build a magnificent palace for the duke in Woodstock Park, which 
was called Blenheim House, and is now a standing memorial of 
the general’s and the nation’s glory, acquired by one of the most 
celebrated victories in the annals of Europe. 

The next campaign, 1705, was attended by no remarkable results; 
but the following year the allies were more successful than the 


BIOGRAPHY 


557 


former. The duke in the beginning of April embarked for Holland 
and, after several inferior advantages, lie gained a complete victory 
over the duke of Bavaria and Marshal Villeroy, at the village of 
Ramillies, on the 15th of May, being Whitsunday. The French 
and the Bavarians lost several thousand men, besides 6000 taken 
prisoners, with great part of their artillery and baggage ; the loss 
of the allies was very inconsiderable: and this victory is known 
in history by the title of the battle of Ramillies. 

The advantages gained by this victory were so far improved bv 
the vigilance and wisdom of the duke, that Louvain, Brussels, 
Mechlin, and even Ghent and Bruges, submitted to King Charles 
III. of Spain without a stroke, and Oudenard surrendered upon 
the first summons. The city of Antwerp followed this example. 
And thus, in the short space of a fortnight, the duke reduced all 
Brabant, and the marquisate of the Holy Empire, to the obedience 
of King Charles. He afterwards took the towns of Ostend, Menin, 
.Dendermonde, and AEtli. 

The forces of the allies, after this glorious campaign, being 
about to separate, his grace, on the 7th of October, went to the 
Hague : where the proposals which France had made for peace 
contained in a letter from the elector of Bavaria to the duke of 
Marlborough, were communicated to the ministers of the allies; 
after which his grace embarked for England. 

He arrived at London on the 8th of November ; and though at 
this time there was a party formed against him at court, yet the 
great services he had done the nation, and the personal esteem the 
queen always had for him, procured him a universal good reception. 

The campaign of the year 1707 proved the most barren one he 
ever made ; which was chiefly owing to a failure on the part of the 
allies, who began to relax in their support of the common cause. 
Nor did affairs go on more to his mind at home; for, upon his 
return to England, after the campaign was over, he found that the 
secret influence against him, which he had suspected the year 
before, had broken out in his absence ; that the queen had a 
female favourite, who was in a fair way of supplanting the 
duchess ; and that she listened to the insinuations of a statesman 
who was not his friend. He is said to have borne all this with 
firmness and patience, though he easily saw to what it tended ; 
and he went to Holland, as usual, early in the spring of the year 
1708, arriving at the Hague on the 19th of March. 

The ensuing campaign was carried on by the duke, in conjunc¬ 
tion with Prince Eugene, with such prodigious success, that the 
French king thought fit, in the beginning of the year 1709, 
to set on foot a negotiation for peace. 

L L 


258 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


The House of Commons this year gave an uncommon testi¬ 
mony of their respect for the duke of Marlborough ; for, besides 
addressing the queen, they, on the 22d of January, 1709, unani¬ 
mously voted thanks to his grace, and ordered them to be trans¬ 
mitted to him abroad by the speaker. 

His grace returned to England on the 25th of February; and 
on his first appearance in the House of Lords, received the thanks 
of that august assembly. His stay was so very short, that we 
need not dwell upon what passed in the winter. It is sufficient 
to say, that they who feared the dangerous effects of those artful 
proposals France had been making for the conclusion of a general 
peace, were also of opinion that nobody was so capable of setting 
their danger in a true light in Holland, as his grace of Marl¬ 
borough. This induced the queen to send him thither the latter 
end of March, in the character of her plenipotentiary; which 
contributed not a little to the enemy’s disappointment, by defeat¬ 
ing all their projects. 

Marshal Millars commanded the French army in the campaign 
of the year 1709 ; and Louis XIV. expressed no small hopes of 
him, in saying, a little before the opening of it, that “ Villars was 
never beaten.” However, the siege of Tournay, and the battle 
of Malplaquet, convinced that monarch that Villars was not 
invincible. 

Tournay surrendered to the allies on the 80th of July, and on 
the 11th of September following was fought the battle of Blareg- 
nies, or Malplaquet, near Mons ; the allies were commanded by 
the duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, and the French 
by the famous marshals of France, Villars and Boufflers. Each 
army consisted of about 100,000 of the best troops ever seen in 
Europe ; and after a most obstinate engagement, in which the 
allies had every difficulty to surmount, from the advantageous situ¬ 
ation of the French army, they penetrated their intrenchments, 
and obliged the enemy to retreat; but this victory cost the allies 
very dear, for they lost 20,000 men. However, when the news 
arrived in England, the honour of gaining the day was thought so 
S^reat, that the city of London renewed their congratulatory addresses 
to the queen ; and her majesty in council, on the 3d of October 
following, ordered the proclamation for a general thanksgiving. 

In the beginning of the year 1710 the French set on foot a new 
negotiation for a peace, which was commonly distinguished by the 
title of the treaty of Gertrudenburgh. The States General, upon 
this, having shown an inclination to enter into conferences with 
the French plenipotentiaries, the House of Commons immediately 
framed an address to the queen, that she would be pleased to send 


BIOGRAPHY. 


259 


the duke of Marlboro ugh over to the Hague; with which request 
her majesty complied; and towards the latter end of February 
his grace went to the Hague, where he met with Prince Eugene, 
and soon after set out with him for the army, which was assembled 
in the neighbourhood of Tournay. 

This campaign was very successful, many towns being taken, 
and fortresses reduced: notwithstanding which, when the duke 
came over to England, about the middle of December, he found 
his interest declining, and his services set at nought. The nego¬ 
tiations for peace which were carried on during a great part of the 
summer ended unfavourably ; and soon after a change took place 
in the ministry, by which the duke’s influence in councils of the 
the queen was greatly weakened. Nevertheless, his grace was 
kindly received by her majesty, wdio seemed desirous to have him 
live upon good terms with her new ministry; but this was 
thought impracticable; and it was every day expected that he 
would lay down his commission. He did not do this ; but he 
carried the golden key, the ensign of the duchess of Marl¬ 
borough’s dignity, on the 9 th of January, 1711, to the queen, 
and resigned all her employments with great duty and submission. 
With the same firmness and composure he consulted the necessary 
measures for the next campaign with those whom he knew to be 
no friends of his; and treated all parties with candour and 
respect. 

An exterior civility, in court language styled a good under¬ 
standing, being established between the duke and the new 
ministry, the duke went over to the Hague, to prepare for the 
next campaign, which, at the same time, he knew would be his 
last. He exerted himself in an uncommon manner, and it was 
attended with the usual success. The duke embarked for 
England when the campaign was over, and came to London upon 
the 8 th of November. 

He acquainted her majesty, in the audience he had at his 
arrival, that he could not concur in the measures of those who 
directed her councils, so he would not distract them by a fruitless 
opposition: yet, finding himself attacked in the House of Lords, 
and loaded with the imputation of having protracted the war, he 
vindicated his conduct and character with great dignity and spirit; 
and in a most pathetic speech appealed to the queen his mistress, 
who was there incognito , for the falsehood of that imputation ; 
declaring that he was as much for a peace as any man, provided it 
was such a peace as might be expected from a war undertaken on 
so just motives, and carried on with uninterrupted success. 

This had a great effect on that august assembly, and perhaps 


260 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


maae some impression on the queen; but, at the same time, it 
gave such an edge to the resentment of his enemies, who were 
then in power, that they resolved, at all events, to remove him. 
Those who were thus resolved to divest him of his commission, 
found themselves under a necessity to engage the queen to take 
it from him. This necessity arose chiefly from Prince Eugene’s 
being expected to come over with a commission from the 
emperor; and to give some colour to it, an inquiry was promoted 
in the House of Commons, to fix a very high imputation on the 
duke, as if he had put very large sums of public money into his 
pocket. When a question to this purpose had been carried, the 
queen, by a letter conceived in very obscure terms, acquainted 
him with her having no farther occasion for his service, and dis¬ 
missed him from all his employments. 

He was from this time exposed to the most painful persecution. 
On the one hand, he was attacked by the clamours of the popu¬ 
lace, and by those licentious writers who are always ready to 
espouse the quarrels of a ministry, and to insult without mercy 
those they can insult with impunity. On the other hand, a prose¬ 
cution was commenced against him by the attorney-general, for 
applying public money to his private use; and the workmen em¬ 
ployed in building Blenheim House, though set at work by the 
crown, were encouraged to sue his grace for the money that was due 
to them. All his actions were also shamefully misrepresented. 

These difficulties, joined to his grief for the death of the earl 
of Godolphin, inclined his grace to gratify his enemies by a vo¬ 
luntary exile. Accordingly, he embarked at Dover upon the 
14th of November, 1712; and landing at Ostend, went from 
thence to Antwerp, and so on to Aix la Chapelle, being every 
where received with the honours due to his high rank and merit. 
The duchess of Marlborough also attended her lord in all his 
journeys, and particularly in his visit to the principality of Min- 
delheim, which was given him by the emperor, and exchanged for 
another at the peace, which was made while the duke was abroad. 

The conclusion of that peace was so far from restoring any 
harmony among the several parties of Great Britain, that it 
widened their differences exceedingly ; insomuch that the chiefs, 
despairing of safety in the way they were in, are said to have 
secretly invited the duke of Marlborough back to England. Be 
this as it may, it is very certain that the duke took a resolution of 
returning a little before the queen’s death ; and, landing at Dover, 
came to London upon the 4th of August, 1714. 

He was received with all possible demonstrations of joy by 
those who (upon the demise of the aueen, which happened upon 


IllUtiRAfHY. 


261 

the first of that month) were entrusted with the government; and 
upon the arrival of King George I. was particularly distinguished 
by acts of royal favour; for he was again declared captain-general 
and commander-in-chief of all his majesty’s land forces, colonel of 
the first regiment of foot guards, and master of the ordnance. 

His advice was of great use in concerting those measures by 
which the rebellion in the year 1715 was crushed, and this was 
his last effort in respect to public affairs; for his infirmities 
increasing with his years, he retired from business, and spent the 
greatest part of his time, during the remainder of his life, at one 
or other of his country houses. 

His death happened on the 16th of June, 1722, at Windsor 
Lodge ; and his corpse, upon the 9th of August following, was 
interred with the highest solemnity, in Westminster Abbey. 

COLONEL GARDINElt. 

The subject of the following memoir sustained, in a remarkable 
manner, the character of the Christian hero, and combined the 
two apparently opposite qualities of an eminently devotional spirit, 
with the courage and conduct belonging to the profession of arms. 

Colonel James Gardiner was the son of Captain Patrick 
Gardiner, of the family of Torwood Head, by Mrs. Mary 
Hodge, of the family of Gladsmuir. The captain, who was 
master of a handsome estate, served many years in the army of 
King William and Queen Anne, and died abroad with the 
British forces in Germany. 

Mrs. Gardiner, our colonel’s mother, was a lady of excellent 
character ; but it pleased God to exercise her with very uncommon 
trials; for she not only lost her husband and her brother in the 
service of their country, but also her eldest son, Mr. Robert 
Gardiner, on the day which completed the 16th year of his age, 
at the siege of Namur, in 1695. 

Her second son, the subject of this memoir, was born at 
Carriden, in Linlithgowshire, on the 10th of January, 1688 ; 
the memorable year of that glorious revolution, which he justly 
esteemed among the happiest of all events. 

Few remarkable things are on record concerning the early 
years of his life, only that his mother took care to instruct him, 
with great tenderness and affection, in the principles of true 
Christianity. He was also trained up in human literature, at the 
school at Linlithgow, where he made a very considerable progress 
in the languages. The good effects of his mother's prudent and 
exemplary care were not so conspicuous as she wished and hoped, 




YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


in the younger part of her son’s life; yet there is great reason to 
believe they were not entirely lost. 

Could his mother, or a very religious aunt, (of whose good in¬ 
structions and exhortations lie has often spoken with pleasure,) 
have prevailed, he would not have thought of a military life: but 
it suited his taste ; and the ardour of his spirit, animated by the per¬ 
suasions of a friend who greatly urged it, was not to be restrained. 

He served first as a cadet, which must have been very early : 
and then at fourteen years old he bore an ensign’s commission in 
a Scotch regiment in the Dutch service ; in which he continued 
till the year 1702, when he received an ensign’s commission from 
Queen Anne, which he bore in the battle of Ramillies, being 
then in the nineteenth year of his age. In this ever-memorable 
action he received a wound in his mouth by a musket-ball, which 
had nearly cost him his life; the particulars of which event are 
thus related by Dr. Doddridge :— 

“ Our young officer was a party of the forlorn hope, and was 
commanded on what seemed almost a desperate service—to dis¬ 
possess the French of the churchyard at Ramillies, where a con¬ 
siderable number of them were posted to remarkable advantage. 
They succeeded much better than was expected ; and it may well 
be supposed, that Mr. Gardiner, who had before been in several 
encounters, and had the view of making his fortune to animate the 
natural intrepidity of his spirit, was glad of such an opportunity 
of signalizing himself. Accordingly, he bad planted his colours 
on an advanced ground; and while he was calling to his men, 
(probably in that horrid language which is so peculiar a disgrace 
to our soldiery, and so absurdly common in such articles of 
extreme danger,) he received a shot into his mouth; which, 
without beating out any of his teeth, or touching the fore part of 
his tongue, went through his neck, and came out about an inch 
and a half on the left side of the vertcbrse. Not feeling at first 
the pain of the stroke, he wondered what was become of the ball, 
and in the wildness of his surprise began to suspect he had 
swallowed it; but dropping soon after, he traced the passage of it 
by his finger, when he could discover it no other way. 

“ This accident happened about five or six in the evening, on the 
23d day of May, in the year 1706 ; and the army pursuing its advan¬ 
tages against the French, without ever regarding the wounded (which 
was, it seems, the duke of Marlborough’s constant method) our young 
officer lay all night in the field, agitated, as may well be supposed, 
with a great variety of thoughts. But expecting to recover, his 
mind was taken up with contrivances to secure his gold, of which 
he had a good deal about him ; and he had recourse to a very odd 



BTOPrR AFIIY. 


263 


expedient, wliicli proved successful. Expecting to be stripped, he 
first took out a handful of that clotted gore of which he was fre¬ 
quently obliged to clear his mouth, or he would have been 
choked ; and putting it into his left hand, he took out his monev 
(about nineteen pistoles), and shutting his hand, and besmearing 
the back part of it with blood, he kept it in this position till the 
blood dried in such a manner that his hand could not easily fall 
open, though any sudden surprise should happen, in which he 
might lose the presence of mind which that concealment otherwise 
would have required. 

“ In the morning, the French, who were masters of that spot, 
though their forces were defeated at some distance, came to plunder 
the slain ; and seeing him, to appearance almost expiring, one of 
them was just applying a sword to his breast to destroy the little 
remainder of life, when in the critical moment, upon which all 
the extraordinary events of such a life as is afterwards proved 
were suspended, a cordelier, who attended the plunderers, inter¬ 
posed, taking him by his dress for a Frenchman, and said, “ Do 
not kill that poor child.’"' Our young soldier heard all that 
passed, though he was not able to speak one word; and, opening 
his eyes, made a sign for something to drink. 

“ They gave him a sup of some spiritous liquor, which hap¬ 
pened to be at hand; by which, he said, he found a more sensible 
refreshment than he could remember from any thing he had tasted 
either before or since. Then signifying to the friar to lean down 
his ear to his mouth, he employed the first efforts of his feeble 
breath, in telling him (what, alas ! was a contrived falsehood) that 
he was nephew to the governor of Huy, a neutral town in the 
neighbourhood ; and that, if he could take any method of con¬ 
veying him thither, he did not doubt but his uncle would liberally 
reward him. He had indeed a friend at Huy, from whom he 
expected a kind reception ; but the relation was only pretended. 
On hearing this, they laid him on a sort of hand-barrow, and sent 
him by a file of musketeers towards the place ; but the men lost 
their way, and got in a wood towards the evening, in which they 
were obliged to continue all night. The poor patient’s wound 
being still undressed, it is not to be wondered that by this time 
it raged violently. The anguish of it engaged him earnestly to 
beg that they would either kill him outright, or leave him there 
to die, without the torture of any farther motion ; and indeed 
they were obliged to rest for a considerable time, on account of 
their own weariness. Thus he spent the second night in the open 
air, without any thing more than a common bandage to staunch 
the blood. He has often mentioned it as a most astonishing 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


864 

providence, that lie did not bleed to death ; which, under God, 
he ascribed to the remarkable coldness of these two nights. 

44 Judging it quite unsafe to attempt carrying him to Huy, from 
whence they were now several miles distant, his convoy took him 
early in the morning to a convent in the neighbourhood, where he 
was hospitably received, and treated with great kindness and ten¬ 
derness. But the cure of his wound was committed to an ignorant 
barber-surgeon, who lived near the house; the best shift that 
could then be made at that time, when it might easily be supposed 
persons of ability in their profession had their hands full of em¬ 
ployment. The tent which this artist applied was almost like a 
peg driven into the wound ; and gentlemen of skill and experience, 
when they came to hear of the manner in which he was treated, 
wondered how he could possibly survive such management. But 
by the blessing of God on these applications, rough as they were, 
he recovered in a few months. The lady abbess, who called him 
her son, treated him with the affection and care of a mother ; and 
he always declared that every thing which he saw within these 
walls was conducted with the strictest decency and decorum. He 
received a great many devout admonitions from the ladies there ; 
and they would fain have persuaded him to acknowledge what they 
thought of so miraculous a deliverance, by embracing the catholic 
faith, as they were pleased to call it. But they could not succeed : 
for though no religion lay near his heart, yet he had too much of 
the spirit of a gentleman, lightly to change that form of religion 
which he wore, as it were, loose about him; as well as too much 
good sense to swallow those monstrous absurdities of popery, which 
immediately presented themselves to him, unacquainted as he was 
with the niceties of the controversy. When his liberty was re¬ 
gained by an exchange of prisoners, and his health thoroughly 
established, he was far from rendering unto the Lord according 
to that wonderful display of divine mercy which he had experienced.’ 1 

Little is known of the particulars of those wild, thoughtless, 
and wretched years which lay between the 19 th and 30th of his 
life ; except it be that he frequently experienced the divine 
goodness in renewed instances, particularly in preserving him in 
several hot military actions, in all of which he never received so 
much as a wound after this, forward as he was in tempting danger ; 
and yet, that all these years were spent in an entire alienation from 
God, and an eager pursuit of animal pleasure, as his supreme good. 
The series of criminal amours in which he was almost incessantly 
engaged during this time, must probably have afforded some re¬ 
markable adventures and occurrences; but the memory of them 
is perished. 



BIOGRAPHY, 


265 

Amidst all these pernicious wanderings from the paths of 
religion, virtue, and happiness, he approved himself so well in 
his military character, that he was made a lieutenant in that year, 
namely, 1706 ; and very quickly after promoted to a cornet’s 
commission in Lord Stair’s regiment of Scotch Grays ; and on 
the 81st of January, in the year 1715, was made captain-lieu¬ 
tenant in Colonel Kef's regiment of dragoons. He had the 
honour of being known to the Earl of Stair some time before, 
and was made his aide-de-camp; and when, upon his lordship’s 
being appointed ambassador from George I. to the court of France, 
he made a most splendid entrance into Paris, Captain Gardiner 
was his master of the horse; and a great deal of the care of that 
admirably well adjusted ceremony fell upon him ; so that he 
gained great credit by the manner in which he conducted it. 
Under the benign influences of his lordship’s favour (which to 
the last day of his life he retained) a captain’s commission was 
procured for him (dated July 22, in the year 1715) in the re¬ 
giment of dragoons commanded by Colonel Stanhope ; and in 
the year 1717 he was advanced to the majority of that regiment: 
in which office he continued till it was reduced, on November the 
10th, 1718, when he was put out of commission. But then his 
majesty was so thoroughly apprised of his faithful and important 
services, that he gave him his sign manual, entitling him to the 
first majority that should become vacant in any regiment of horse 
or dragoons, which happened about five years after to be in Croft’s 
regiment of dragoons, in which he received a commission, dated 
June the 1st, 1724; and on the 20th of July, the same year, 
he was made major of an old regiment, commanded by the Earl 
of Stair. 

We will now return to that period of his life which he passed at 
Paris, the scene of most remarkable and important events. He 
continued several years under the roof of the brave and generous 
earl of Stair, to whom he endeavoured to approve himself by 
every instance of diligent and faithful service. And his lordship 
gave no inconsiderable proof of the dependence which he had 
upon him, when, in the beginning of the year 1715, he entrusted 
him with the important despatches relating to the discovery which, 
by a series of admirable policy, he made of a design which the 
French king was then forming for invading Great Britain in favour 
of the Pretender. 

While Captain Gardiner was in London, in one of the journeys 
he made upon this occasion, he ventured to predict, from what he 
knew of the bad state of the French king’s health, that he would 
live six weeks. This was made known by some spies who 

K H 


not 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


2C6 

were at St. James’s, and came to be reported at the court of 
Versailles ; for he received letters from some friends at Paris, 
advising him not to return thither, unless he could reconcile 
himself to a lodging in the Bastile. But he was soon free from 
that apprehension; for before half that time was accomplished, 
Louis XIV. died ; and it is generally thought his death was 
hastened by a very accidental circumstance, which had some re¬ 
lation to the captain’s prophecy. For the last time he ever dined 
in public, which was a very little while after the report of it had 
been made there, he happened to discover our British envoy 
among the spectators. The penetration of this illustrious person 
was too great, and his attachment to the interest of his royal master 
too well known, not to render him very disagreeable to that crafty 
and tyrannical prince. He at first appeared very languid, as indeed 
he was ; but on casting his eye upon the earl of Stair, he affected 
to appear before him in a much better state of health than he 
really was; and therefore, as if he had been awakened on a sudden 
from some deep reverie, immediately put himself into an erect 
posture, called up a laboured vivacity into his countenance, and 
ate much more heartily than was by any means advisable, repeating 
it two or three times to a nobleman then in waiting, “ Methinks 
I eat very well for a man who is to die so soon.” But this inroad 
upon that regularity of living which he had for some time observed, 
agreed so ill with him, that he never recovered this meal, but 
died in less than a fortnight. This gave occasion for some hu¬ 
morous people to say, that old Louis after all was killed by a 
Briton. 

The captain quickly returned, and continued with small inter¬ 
ruptions at Paris, at least till the year 1720. This was in all 
probability the gayest part of his life, and the most criminal. 
Whatever wise and good examples he might find in the family 
where he had the honour to reside, it is certain that the French 
court during the regency of the Duke of Orleans was one of the 
most dissolute under heaven. What, by a wretched abuse of 
language, have been called intrigues of love and gallantry, were 
so entirely to the major’s then degenerate taste, that if not the 
whole business, at least the whole happiness of his life consisted 
in them ; and he had now too much leisure for one who was so 
prone to abuse it. His fine constitution, than which perhaps 
there was hardly ever a better, gave him great opportunities of 
indulging himself in these excesses ; and his good spirits enabled 
him to pursue his pleasures of every kind in so alert and sprightly 
a manner, that multitudes envied him, and called him by a 
dreadful kind of compliment, “ The happy rake.” 


BIOGRAPHY. 


267 


Yet still the checks of conscience, and some remaining prin¬ 
ciples of a good education, would break in upon his most licentious 
hours; and when some of his dissolute companions were once 
congratulating him on his distinguished felicity, a dog happened 
at that time to come into the room, he could not forbear groaning 
inwardly, and saying to himself, “ Oh, that I were that dog l 11 
Such was then his happiness; and such is that perhaps of hundreds 
more, who bear themselves highest in the contempt of religion, 
and glory in that infamous servitude which they effect to call 
liberty. But these remonstrances of reason and conscience were 
in vain ; and, in short, he carried things so far, in this wretched 
part of his life, that some sober English gentlemen, who made 
no great pretences to religion, how agreeable soever he might 
have been to them on other accounts, rather declined than sought 
his company, as fearing they might have been ensnared and cor¬ 
rupted by it. 

At this time he was not without some secret monitions of con¬ 
science, and some casual efforts to reform his character; but they 
were overborne, again and again, by the force of temptation; and it 
is no wonder, that in consequence of them his heart grew yet harder. 
Nor was it softened or awakened by some very memorable deliver¬ 
ances, which at this time he received. He was in extreme danger 
by a fall from his horse, as he was riding post in the streets of 
Calais ; when going down a hill, the horse threw him over his 
head, and pitched over him, so that when he rose the beast lay 
beyond him, and almost dead. Yet, though he received not the 
least harm, it made no serious impression on his mind. In his 
return from England in the packet-boat, but a few weeks after 
the former accident, a violent storm that drove them up to Harwich, 
tossed them from thence for several hours, in a dark night, on the 
coast of Holland, and brought them into such extremity, that the 
captain of the vessel urged him to go to prayers immediately, if 
he ever intended to do it at all; for he concluded they would in 
a few minutes be at the bottom of the sea. In this circumstance 
he did pray, and that very fervently too : and it was very remark¬ 
able, that while he was crying to God for deliverance, the wind 
fell, and quickly after they arrived at Calais. But the major was 
so little affected with what had befallen him, that when some of 
his gay friends, on hearing the story, rallied him upon the efficacy 
of his prayers, he excused himself from the scandal of being 
thought much in earnest, by saying, “ that it was at midnight, an 
hour when his good mother and aunt were asleep; or else he 
should have left that part of the business to them.” 

And now we are come to that astonishing part of his story, the 


268 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION 


account of his conversion, which we give in the language of 
Dr. Doddridge, his biographer. 

“ This memorable event happened towards the middle of July, 
1719, but I cannot be exact as to the day. The major had spent 
the evening (and, if I mistake not, it was the sabbath) in some 
gay company, and had an unhappy assignation with a married 
woman, of what rank or quality I did not particularly inquire, 
whom he was to attend exactly at twelve. The company broke 
up about eleven ; and not judging it convenient to anticipate the 
time appointed, he went into his chamber to kill the tedious hour, 
perhaps with some amusing book, or some other way. But it very 
accidentally happened that he took up a religious book, which his 
good mother or aunt had, without his knowledge, slipped into 
his portmanteau. It was called, if I remember the title exactly, 

‘ The Christian Soldier,’ or 4 Heaven taken by Storm and 
was written by Mr. Thomas Watson. Guessing by the title of 
it, that he should find some phrases of his own profession spirit¬ 
ualized in a manner which he thought might afford him some 
diversion, he resolved to dip into it; but he took no serious notice 
of any thing he read in it: and yet, while this book was in his 
hand, an impression was made upon his mind (perhaps God only 
knows how) which drew after it a train of the most important and 
happy consequences. 

“ There is indeed a possibility, that while he was sitting in this 
attitude, and reading in this careless and profane manner, he might 
suddenly fall asleep, and only dream of what he apprehended he 
saw. But nothing can be more certain, than that, when he gave 
me this relation, he judged himself to have been as broad awake, 
during the whole time, as he ever was in any part of his life ; and 
he mentioned it to me several times afterwards as what undoubtedly 
passed, not only in his imagination, but before his eyes. 

“He thought he saw an unusual blaze of light fall on the book 
while he was reading, which he at first imagined might happen by 
some accident in the candle. But lifting up his eyes, he appre¬ 
hended, to his extreme amazement, that there was before him, as 
it was, suspended in the air, a visible representation of the Lord 
Jesus Christ upon the cross, surrounded on all sides with a glory; 
and was impressed as if a voice, or something equivalent to a voice, 
had come to hijn to this effect (for he was not confident as to the 
very words) “ O sinners ! did I suffer this for thee, and are these 
the returns ?” But whether this were an audible voice, or only a 
strong impression on his mind equally striking, he did not seem 
very confident, though, to the best of my remembrance, he rather 
judged it to be the former. Struck with so amazing a phenomenon 


BIOGRAPHY. 


269 


as this, there remained hardly any life in him, so that he sunk 
down in the arm-chair in which he sat, and continued, he knew 
not exactly how long, insensible (which was one circumstance that 
made me several times take the liberty to suggest that he might 
possibly be all this while asleep) ; but however that were, he 
quickly after opened his eyes, and saw nothing more than usual. 

“ It may easily be supposed he was in no condition to make 
any observation upon the time in which he had remained in an 
insensible state. Nor did he throughout all the remainder of the 
night once recollect that criminal and detestable assignation, which 
had before engrossed all his thoughts. He rose in a tumult of 
passion not to be conceived, and walked to and fro in his chamber, 
till he was ready to drop down in unutterable astonishment and 
agony of heart; appearing to himself the vilest monster in the 
creation of God, who had all his lifetime been crucifying Christ 
afresh by his sins, and now saw, as he assuredly believed, by a 
miraculous vision, the horror of what he had done. With this 
was connected such a view, both of the majesty and goodness of 
God, as caused him to loathe and abhor himself, and to repent as 
in dust and ashes. He immediately gave judgment against him¬ 
self, that he was most justly worthy of eternal damnation ; he was 
astonished that he had not been immediately struck dead in the 
midst of his wickedness ; and (which I think deserves particular 
remark) though he assuredly believed that he should ere long be 
in hell, and settled it as a point with himself for several months, 
that the wisdom and justice of God did almost necessarily require 
that such an enormous sinner should be made an example of ever¬ 
lasting vengeance, and a spectacle as such both to angels and men, 
so that he hardly durst presume to pray for pardon; yet what he 
then suffered was not so much from the fear of hell, though 
he concluded it would soon be his portion, as from a sense of that 
horrible ingratitude he had shown to the God of his life, and 
to that blessed Redeemer who had been in so affecting a manner 
set forth as crucified before him.” 

The mind of Major Gardiner continued from this remarkable 
time till towards the end of October (that is, rather more than 
three months, but especially the two first of them) in as extraordi¬ 
nary a situation as one can well imagine. He knew nothing of the 
joys arising from a sense of pardon; yet he had such a sense of 
the evil of sin, of the goodness of the Divine Being, and of the 
admirable tendency of the Christian revelation, that he resolved to 
spend the remainder of his life, while God continued him out of 
hell, in as rational and as useful a manner as he could ; and to 
continue casting himself at the feet of divine mercy every day, and 


570 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


often in a day, if peradventure there might be hope of pardon, of 
which all that he could say was, that he did not absolutely despair. 

It was soon apparent that his views and feelings had undergone 
a total renovation. He was not only delivered from that bondage 
of corruption, which had been habitual to him for many years, but 
felt in his breast so contrary a disposition, that he was grieved to 
see human nature, in those to whom he was most entirely a stranger, 
prostituted to such low and contemptible pursuits. He therefore 
exerted his natural courage in a very new kind of combat, and 
became an open advocate for religion, in all its precepts relating 
to sobriety, righteousness, and godliness. 

A remarkable instance of this happened about the year 1720, 
on Major Gardiner's first return to make any considerable abode 
in England, after this remarkable change. “ He had heard, 11 says 
Dr. Doddridge, “ on the other side of the water, that it was cur¬ 
rently reported among his companions at home that he was stark 
mad : a report at which no reader, who knows the wisdom of the 
world in these matters, will be much surprised, any more than 
himself. He concluded, therefore, that he should have many 
battles to fight, and was willing to despatch the business as fast as 
he could. And therefore being to spend a few days at the country 
house of a person of distinguished rank, with whom he had been 
very intimate, (whose name I do not remember that he told me, nor 
did I think it proper to inquire after it,) he begged the favour of 
him, that he would contrive matters so, that a day or two after he 
came down, several of their former gay companions might meet at 
his lordship’s table; that he might have an opportunity of making 
his apology to them, and acquainting them with the nature and 
reasons of his change. It was accordingly agreed to ; and a pretty 
large company met on the day appointed, with previous notice 
that Major Gardiner would be there. A good deal of raillery 
passed at dinner, to which the major made very little answer. But 
when the cloth was taken away, and the servants retired, he 
begged their patience for a few minutes, and then plainly and 
seriously told them what notions he entertained of virtue and re- 
ligion, and on what consideration he had absolutely determined, 
that by the grace of God he would make it the care and business 
of his life, whatever censure and contempt he might incur. He 
well knew how improper it was in such company to relate the ex¬ 
traordinary manner in which he was awakened, which they would 
probably have interpreted to a demonstration of lunacy, against all 
the gravity and solidity of his discourse: but he contented himself 
with such a rational defence of a righteous, sober, and godly life, 
as he knew none of them could with any shadow of reason 


BIOGRAPHY. 


271 


contest. He then challenged them to propose any thing they 
could urge, to prove that a life of irreligion and debauchery was 
preferable to the fear, love, and worship of the eternal God, and a 
conduct agreeable to the precepts of his gospel. And he failed 
not to bear his testimony from his own experience (to one part of 
which many of them had been witnesses,) that after having run the 
wildest round of sensual pleasure, with all the advantages the best 
constitution and spirits could give him, he had never tasted any 
thing that deserved to be called happiness till he had made religion 
his refuge and his delight. He testified calmly and boldly the 
habitual serenity and peace that he now felt in his own breast (for 
the most elevated delights he did not think to plead, lest they 
should be esteemed enthusiasm) and the composure and pleasure 
with which he looked forward to objects which the gayest sinner 
must acknowledge to be equally unavoidable and dreadful. 

44 1 know not what might be attempted by some of the company 
in answer to this ; but I well remember he told me, the master of 
the table, a person of a very frank and candid disposition, cut short 
the debate, and said 4 Come, let us call another cause : we thought 
this man mad, and he is in good earnest proving that we are so.’ 
On the whole this well judged circumstance saved him a great 
deal of future trouble. When his former acquaintance observed 
that he was still conversable and innocently cheerful, and that he 
was immovable in his resolutions, they desisted from further im¬ 
portunity. And he has assured me, that instead of losing any one 
valuable friend by this change in his character, he found himself 
much more esteemed and regarded by many who could not 
persuade themselves to imitate his example.” 

Our limits will not permit us to enter into the detail of the life of 
this extraordinary man; it is sufficient to remark, that it was one 
undeviating course of holiness; that his religious views and 
feelings, though so remarkable, were proved to be the effect not 
of a blind enthusiasm, but of divine influence; and that the path he 
had deliberately chosen was most eminently, in the language of 
holy writ, 44 the path of the just, which shines more and more unto 
the perfect day.” 

On the 11th of July, 1726, he was married to the Right 
Honourable Lady Frances Erskine, daughter to the late Earl of 
Buchan, by whom he had thirteen children, five only of whom 
survived their father. On the 24th of January, 1730, he was 
advanced to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, in a regiment long 
under the command of Lord Cadogan, with whose friendship he 
was honoured for many years. And he continued in this rank 
and regiment till the *l9th of April, 1743, when he received a 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION 


272 

colonel’s commission over a regiment of dragoons, at the head 
of which he valiantly fought in the defence of his sovereign and 
his country, in the year 1745, at the battle of Preston Pans, 
which was occasioned by the incursions of the rebels in favour of 
the Pretender. 

On the morning of September 21 the army was alarmed at 
break of day by the noise of the rebel’s approach, and the 
attack was made before sunrise, yet when it was light enough 
to discern what passed. As soon as the enemy came within 
gunshot they made a furious fire; and it is said that 
the dragoons which constituted the left wing immediately fled. 
The colonel at the beginning of the onset, which in the whole 
lasted but a few minutes, received a wound by a bullet in his left 
breast, which made him give a sudden spring in his saddle; upon 
which his servant, who had led the horse, would have persuaded 
him to retreat; but he said it was only a wound in the flesh, and 
fought on, though he presently after received a shot in his right 
thigh. The colonel was for a few moments supported by his men, 
but after a faint fire, the regiment in general was seized with a 
panic ; and though their colonel and some other gallant officers 
did what they could to rally them once or twice, they at last took 
a precipitate flight. While thus unsupported by his men, a 
Highlander advanced towards Col. Gardiner with a scythe fast¬ 
ened to a long pole, with which he gave him such a deep wound 
on his right arm, that his sword dropped out of his hand ; and at 
the same time several others coming about him, while he was thus 
dreadfully entangled with that cruel weapon, he was dragged off 
from his horse and received a blow in the head which soon proved 
mortal. 

From the moment in which he fell it was no longer a battle, 
but a rout and carnage. The cruelties which the rebels (as it is 
generally said under the command of Lord Elcho) inflicted on 
some of the king’s troops, after they had asked quarter, are dread¬ 
fully legible on the countenances of many who survived it. They 
entered Colonel Gardiner’s house before he was carried off from 
the field ; and notwithstanding the strict orders which the unhappy 
Duke of Perth (whose conduct is said to have been very humane 
in many instances) gave to the contrary, every thing of value was 
plundered, to the very curtains of the beds, and hangings of the 
rooms. His papers were all thrown into the wildest disorder, and 
his house made an hospital for the reception of those who were 
wounded in the action. Such was the close of a life which had 
been so zealously devoted to God, and filled up with so many 
honourable services. The remains of this Christian hero were 


BIOGRAPHY 


273 


interred the Tuesday following, September 24, at the parish church 
at Tranent, where he had usually attended divine service, with 
great solemnity. 

“ I conclude,’ 1 says Dr. Doddridge,“ with humbly acknowledging 
the wisdom and goodness of that awful Providence which drew so 
thick a gloom around him in the last hours of his life, that the 
lustre of his virtues might dart through it with a more vivid and 
observable ray. It is abundant matter of thankfulness that so 
signal a monument of grace, and ornament of the Christian pro¬ 
fession, was raised in our age and country, and spared for so many 
honourable and useful years. Nor can all the tenderness of the 
most affectionate friendship, while its sorrows bleed afresh in the 
view of so tragical a scene, prevent my adoring the gracious 
appointment of the great Lord of all events, that when the day 
in which he must have expired without an enemy appeared so very 
near, the last ebb of his generous blood should be poured out as 
a kind of sacred libation to the liberties of his country, and the 
honour of his God ! that all the other virtues of his character, 
embalmed as it were by that precious stream, might diffuse around 
a more extensive fragrancy, and be transmitted to the most remote 
posterity, with that peculiar charm which they cannot but derive 
from their connexion with so gallant a fail: an event (as that 
blessed apostle, of whose spirit he so deeply drank, has expressed 
it) according to his earnest expectation, and his hope, that in him 
Christ might be glorified in all things, whether by his life or by 
his death.” 


LORI) NELSON. 

Horatio Lord Viscount Nelson, one of the most distinguished 
commanders of the British navy, was born at Burnham Thorpe, 
Norfolk, September 29, 1758. His father, Edmund Nelson, was 
rector of that parish. Horatio received his education at the school 
of North Walsham, and discovered at an early age a strong pre¬ 
dilection for the naval profession. Soon after he was taken from 
school he went to serve under his uncle, but as the latter com¬ 
manded only a guard-ship in the Thames, he was sent in 1771 to 
the West Indies in a merchantman. He next sailed with Com¬ 
modore Phipps, on a voyage of discovery towards the North Pole. 
Afterwards he engaged on board the squadron of Sir Edward 
Hughes, destined for the East Indies. Thence he returned, de¬ 
bilitated in body, and depressed in spirits. In 1780, having re¬ 
covered strength enough again to brave death abroad, he was 

N N 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


274 

appointed to serve in the West Indies, where his adventures were 
of the most romantic kind, but our limits will not permit the 
detail of them. A second time he returned to England a living 
skeleton, and went to Bath, where he was so helpless, that he was 
carried to and from his bed. Indeed Nelson was a great sufferer 
from his infancy ; not having, like Charles XII. of Sweden, “ a 
frame of adamant,” yet like him having “ a soul of fire,” his frail 
body was perpetually harassed and wasted by the restless spirit 
within, that was impatient of confinement, and often on the eve 
of escaping. But from his bed of sickness, or rather on it, he 
was sent as a captain of the Albemarle , to suffer the rigours of a 
northern winter in the Baltic; and when he had undergone that 
seasoning he was ordered to Canada. Thence he passed to the 
West Indies, where he became acquainted with Prince William 
Henry, (late William IV.) then serving under Lord Hood : from 
that time the prince was a friend to him through life. In 1783, 
after a short visit to France, Nelson was a third time stationed in 
the West Indies, where he found himself senior captain, under 
Sir Edward Hughes, and consequently second in command. We 
must not enter into the details of his public spirited conduct in 
resisting the illegal practices of American interlopers and faithless 
government contractors. He served his country most daringly 
and disinterestedly; for which he was happy to escape ruin and a 
prison for life, instead of thanks and remuneration. Indeed from 
the very outset of Nelson’s career to his last expedition, the 
ministers of government seem to have been always slow, and 
sometimes reluctant to reward his merits. 

It was here, in 1787,he saw and loved, and married Mrs. Nisbet, 
the daughter of a physician in the island of Nevis. The purity 
and ardour of his attachment to this lady are glowingly displayed 
in his letters written to her during his occasional absence, and it is 
lamentable that the constancy of a passion so noble did not equal 
its intensity. 

In the earlier period of the French revolutionary war, Nelson 
accompanied Lord Hood to Toulon, and was subsequently 
employed by that commander on an embassy to Naples, where 
he first saw Sir William and Lady Hamilton. Sir William, 
after his first interview with him, told his lady that he was about 
to introduce a little man to her who could not boast of being very 
handsome; but such a man as he believed would one day astonish 
the world. “ I have never before,” continued he, “ entertained 
an officer at my house, but I am determined to bring him here; 
let hin be put in the room prepared for Prince Augustus.” Thus 
that acquaintance began which ended in the destruction of Nelson’s 


BIOGRAPHY. 


275 


domestic happiness ; though it seemed to threaten no such con¬ 
sequences in its commencement. He spoke of Lady Hamilton, 
in a letter to his wife, as a young woman of amiable manners, who 
did honour to the station to which she was raised. 

We pass over the exploits of Nelson at Sardinia, Corsica, and 
on the coast of Italy, under Admiral Hotham ; his labours there 
alone, if he had afterwards achieved no greater things, would have 
been sufficient to entitle him to rank among the first of British 
captains, though they were but the common-place incidents of his 
life. Amidst all disheartening, appalling, and obstructing contin¬ 
gencies, he pressed right onward in his course of honour. 

In 1795 we find him, as Commodore Nelson, still in the Medi¬ 
terranean with Sir John Jervis. In the battle of St. Vincent, 
from which the commander-in-chief derived his title of nobility, 
our hero distinguished himself by prodigies of enterprising valour. 
These revealed his name at once in the splendour which it had 
long been acquiring behind a cloud of untoward circumstances, 
and his country gazed on her proudest luminary, already at the 
meridian, with as much wonder as if it had been unknown, and 
had just arisen. 

Nelson afterwards undertook the desperate expedition against 
Teneriffe. This was one of the few instances in which consummate 
skill and unconquerable spirit failed to accomplish his end. He 
returned to England with the loss of an eye, and of his right arm. 
Here he was invested with the Order of the Bath, and received a 
pension of £1000 a year. 

Early in 1798 Nelson, now an admiral, rejoined Earl St. Vincent 
in the Mediterranean. When Buonaparte sailed with an immense 
armament from Toulon on an unknown expedition, Nelson was 
despatched in quest of him. Had these two men encountered, 
the recent history of Europe might have been different from 
what it is. Nelson’s little fleet was dispersed by a storm, off the 
coast of Sardinia, which delayed the pursuit. His own ship, the 
Vanguard , was probably rescued from destruction in spite of 
himself, by Captain Ball, who resolutely took it in tow, and 
carried the admiral safe into Sardinia. 

While he was refitting, he was reinforced by eleven ships of the 
line, and then, for the first time in his life, he found himself at the 
head of a magnificent armament, well appointed, worthy of its 
commander, and prepared for any service, however dreadful, to 
which he might lead it. Unfortunately his frigates had been 
separated in the storm, and could not afterwards rejoin the fleet. 
This was like the loss of his eyes to him, and his subsequent pur¬ 
suit of the French to Egypt, back to Naples, and thence to 


276 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Egypt again, was a cliase in the dark for want of these light and 
swift vessels to look out perpetually and on every hand for the 
enemy. That enemy at length he found in the port of Alexan¬ 
dria; and on the 1st of August a dreadful conflict ensued. 
Nelson found the French fleet moored in a strong line across the 
Bay of Aboukir, and in a position which the French admiral 
thought perfectly secure. He ordered an immediate attack, and 
by dexterously sending a part of his ships between the enemy’s 
fleet and the shore, attacked it on both sides at once, ship after 
ship in succession. A complete victory was the consequence ; 
nine ships of the line were taken, and two burnt; one of which 
was V Orient, the French admiral’s, who was killed in the engage¬ 
ment. However complete this victory was, Nelson could not 
pursue it, as he would have done, for want of means. Had he 
been provided with small craft, nothing could have prevented the 
destruction of the store-ships and transports in the port of Alex¬ 
andria—four bomb-vessels would at that time have burnt the whole 
in a few hours. “ Were I to die this moment,” said he, in his 
despatches to the Admiralty, “ want of frigates would be stamped 
on my heart. No words of mine can express what I have suffered, 
and am still suffering for the want of them ” Such is the price 
which the hero must pay for the glory of inflicting death on his 
fellow-creatures, such comparatively small disappointments produce 
in his own mind inexpressible anguish. Nevertheless Nelson had 
achieved a great deliverance ; not only Europe, but even India felt 
relieved from a burden of fear too horrible to be endured. The 
Grand Seignior, and the king of Naples, were the first monarchs 
to reward him with honours and endowments. At home he was 
created Baron Nelson of the Nile, and a pension of £2000 a year, 
for three lives, was conferred upon him. Meanwhile, at Naples, 
he tarnished the lustre of his victory in Egypt. He fell into the 
toils of Lady Hamilton ; and equally intoxicated with passion 
and pride, acted unworthily, and even cruelly, as the executioner 
of Neapolitan vengeance on those subjects of the king, who had 
been compelled or seduced bv French violence or craft, to violate 
their allegiance. 

In 1800 Nelson returned to England, where he had every earthly 
blessing except domestic happiness; he had forfeited that for ever. 
Before he had been three months at home, he was separated from 
Lady Nelson. Some of his last words to her were, “ I call God 
to witness, there is nothing in you or your conduct I wish other¬ 
wise.” This was the consequence of his infatuated attachment to 
Lady Hamilton. It had before caused a quarrel with his son-in- 
law, and occasioned remonstrances from his true friends, which 


BIOGRAPHY 


27 7 

produced no other effect than that of making him displeased with 
them, and more displeased with himself. 

In the spring of 1801 he was appointed second in command to 
Sir Hyde Parker, over a fleet sent to the Baltic to chastise 
Denmark, Sweden, and Russia, for a coalition with France against 
the maritime rights of Great Britain. The fleet sailed on the 12th 
of March. Mr. Vansittart (now Lord Bexley) sailed in it; the 
British cabinet still hoping to obtain its end by negotiations. On 
the 21st Nelson had a long conference with Sir Hyde ; and the 
next day addressed a letter to him, worthy of himself and of the 
occasion. Mr. Vansittart’s report had been received. It repre¬ 
sented the Danish government as in the highest degree hostile, 
and their state of preparation as exceeding what our cabinet had 
supposed possible; for Denmark had profited with all activity of 
the leisure which had so impoliticly been given her. More time 
was lost before it could be decided whether to take the passage of 
the Belt or of the Sound .At length orders were given to pass 
the Sound, and on the afternoon of the 29 th the ships were cleared 
for action with an alacrity characteristic of British seamen. At 
daybreak on the 30th it blew a top-sail breeze from N.W. The 
signal was made, and the fleet moved in order for battle; Nelson’s 
division in the van, Sir Hyde’s in the centre, and Admiral Grave’s 
in the rear. The whole force consisted of fifty-one sail, of various 
descriptions, of which sixteen were of the line. 

The plan upon which Nelson had determined to act, if ever it 
should be his fortune to bring a Baltic fleet to action, w r as to 
attack the head of their line, and to confuse their movements 
—“ Close with a Frenchman,” he used to say, “ but out-manceuvre 
a Russian.” He offered his services for the attack, requiring ten 
sail of the line, and the whole of the smaller craft. Sir Hyde gave 
him two more line of battle-ships than he asked, and left every 
thing to his judgment. The enemy’s force, which was very 
large, was not the only obstacle with which the British fleet had 
to contend, as the channel was extremely intricate, and little 
known. At five minutes after ten the action began. The first 
half of our fleet was engaged in about half an hour ; and by half¬ 
past eleven the battle became general. The plan of attack had 
been complete; but seldom has any plan been more disconcerted 
by untoward accidents. Denmark had never been engaged in so 
arduous a conflict, and never did the Danes more nobly display 
their national courage ; but between one and two their fire slack¬ 
ened, and about two it ceased from the greater part of their line. 
It was, however, difficult to take possession of those who struck, 
because the batteries protected them, and many of the boats which 


278 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


approached for this purpose were fired upon. Hoping to save this 
unnecessary effusion of blood, Nelson wrote a spirited letter to 
the Crown Prince; in consequence of which a negotiation took 
place, which ended in the surrender of most of the enemy’s fleet, 
and finally in a peace with Denmark. 

His next expedition was not of his own choosing, nor in his 
own style. It was a sanguinary and disastrous attack on the French 
gun-boats at Boulogne, in which his usual skill and intrepidity 
were displayed, but without his customary success. 

After the peace of Amiens, Nelson retired to a house which he 
had purchased at Merton, in Surrey, meaning to pass his days there 
with Sir William and Lady Hamilton. Sir William did not long 
survive. 

On the renewal of hostilities, Nelson took the command of the 
blockading fleet off Toulon. On this station he continued more 
than two years, during which period he went on shore thrice only, 
each time on the king’s business, and for not more than an hour. 

In January 1805, the French fleet escaped out of Toulon, and 
joining the Spanish, sailed for the West Indies. Nelson was 
then at Sardinia, and though scarcely twenty-four hours behind 
them at the outset, so uncertain are operations at sea, that he pur¬ 
sued them in vain to Malta, to Barbary, through the Straits of 
Gibraltar, across the Atlantic, and back to Spain. From this un¬ 
paralleled chace of more than seven thousand miles full speed, 
(after a stagnation of blockade for eight-and-twenty months,) 
Nelson returned to England in August worn out by fatigue, de¬ 
pressed by anxiety, and irritated by ill success. In the following 
year he once more left his native country to take the command of 
a fleet destined to achieve the greatest naval victory on record. 
He arrived off Cadiz on the 29th of September. For a long time 
he anxiously sought the enemy without effect; but on the 19th 
of October he received the gratifying intelligence that they had put 
to sea, and at day-break, on the 21st of October, the hostile fleets 
came in sight of each other in the vicinity of Cape Trafalgar. Our 
fleet consisted of twenty-seven sail of the line and four frigates; 
theirs of thirty-three, and seven large frigates. Their superiority 
was greater in size and weight of metal than in numbers. 

Nelson, certain of a triumphant issue to the day, asked Captain 
Blackwood what he should consider as a victory. That officer 
answered, that, considering the handsome way in which battle was 
offered by the enemy, their apparent determination for a fair 
trial of strength, and the situation of the land, he thought it would 
be a glorious result if fourteen were captured. He replied, “ I 
shall not be satisfied with less than twenty.” Soon after the 


BIOGRAPHY. 


279 


signal was made ; a signal wliich will be remembered as long as the 
language, or even the memory of England shall endure—Nelson’s 
last signal—“ England expects every man to do his duty! 1 ’ It 
was received throughout the fleet with a shout of answering accla¬ 
mation, made sublime by the spirit which it breathed, and the 
feeling which it expressed. In the midst of the action the Victory 
ran on board the Redoutable just as her tiller ropes were shot 
away. The French shipreceivedher with a broadside; then instantly 
let down her lower deck ports, for fear of being boarded through 
them, and never afterwards fired a great gun during the action. 

A ball fired from the mizen-top of the French vessel, which in 
the then situation of the two vessels was not more than fifteen 
yards from that part of the deck where he was standing, struck the 
epaulette on Nelson's left shoulder—about a quarter after one. Cap¬ 
tain Hardy, who was a few steps from him, turning round saw three 
men raising him up. “ They have done for me at last, Hardy, 1 ’ 
said he. “I hope not I’ 1 cried Hardy. “ Yes, 11 he replied, “my 
back-bone is shot through. 11 Yet even now, not fora moment losing 
his presence of mind, he observed, as they were carrying him down 
the ladder, that the tiller ropes, which had been shot away, were 
not yet replaced; and ordered that new ones should be rove im¬ 
mediately—then, that he might not be known by the crew, he 
took out his handkerchief and covered his face and his stars. Had 
he but concealed those badges of honour from the enemy, England, 
perhaps, would not have had cause to receive with sorrow the news 
of the battle of Trafalgar. 

It w r as soon perceived, upon examination, that the wound was 
mortal, and he became impatient to see Captain Hardy. When 
that officer, who had been often sent for, and who could not before 
leave the deck, at length came, they shook hands in silence, Hardy 
in vain struggling to suppress the feelings of that most painful 
moment. “Well, Hardy, 11 said Nelson soon after, “how goes 
the day with us P 1 ’—“ Very well,’ 1 replied Hardy; “ ten ships have 
struck. 1 ’—“ I am a dead man, Hardy, 11 said he ; “ I am going fast 
—it will be all over with me soon.’ 1 Captain Hardy then shook 
hands with him and was compelled to return upon deck. About 
fifty minutes after he returned, and again taking the hand of his 
dying friend and commander, congratulated him on having gained 
a complete victory. How many of the enemy were taken lie did 
not know, as it was impossible to perceive them distinctly—but 
fourteen or fifteen at least. “ That's well, 11 cried Nelson ; “ but 1 
bargained for twenty. 11 And then in a stronger voice he said, 
“ Anchor, Hardy, anchor. 11 Hardy upon this hinted that Admiral 
Collingwood would take upon himself the- direction of affairs. 


280 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


“ Not while I live, 11 said the dying Nelson, endeavouring to raise 
himself from the bed : “ do you anchor.’ 1 His previous order for 
preparing to anchor had shown how clearly he saw the necessity of 
this. Presently calling Hardy back, he said to him in a low tone 
of voice, “ Don’t throw me overboardand he desired that he 
might be buried by his parents, unless it should please the king 
to order otherwise. Hardy stood over him in silence for a minute 
or two; then knelt again. “ Who is that,” said Nelson ; and 
being informed, he replied, “ God bless you, Hardy. 11 Hardy 
then left him—for ever. His articulation now became difficult; 
but he was distinctly heard to say, “ Thank God, I have done my 
duty !” These words he had repeatedly pronounced, and they 
were the last words which he uttered. He expired at thirty minutes 
after four—three hours and a quarter after he had received his 
w r ound. 

It is almost superfluous to add, that all the honours which a 
grateful country could bestow were heaped upon the memory of 
Nelson. His brother was made an earl, with a grant of <P6000 
a year; £10,000 were voted to each of his sisters; and <P100,000 
for the purchase of an estate. A public funeral was decreed, and 
a public monument. Statues and monuments also were voted by 
most of our principal cities. The victory of Trafalgar was cele¬ 
brated with the usual forms of rejoicing: but they were without 
joy ; for such already was the glory of the British navy, that even 
this signal victory seemed forgotten in the consideration of the price 
by which it was purchased. 

Nelson was a man of a most original and comprehensive genius ; 
his energies, matured, experienced, concentrated, were incessantly 
directed to one point; and his amazing mind, inflamed by un¬ 
bounded ambition, yet awed by a peculiar sense of religion, that 
rather haunted than governed him—exalted by enthusiastic patriot¬ 
ism—exasperated by remorseless hostility to Franee—rendered ro¬ 
mantic by his insane attachment to Lady Hamilton— and latterly 
supported by the power and purse of the nation—at length ac¬ 
complished all his heart’s desire. With his death closed the most 
splendid era of the naval history of this country. It will be an age 
before there is work for another Nelson. 

LORD COLLINGWOOD 

The character of this distinguished naval officer, though less 
marked by brilliant traits of genius than the preceding, yet from 
its consistency and solidity, as well as from the private and domestic 
virtues which adorned it, is scarcely less interesting. Cuthbert 




I 


BIOGRAPHY. 281 

Collingwood was the son of a very respectable descendant of the 
ancient family of the Collingwoods, in the north of England, 
whose names are connected with the traditions of border history. 
He was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, September 26, 1750. In 
the year 1761, at the early age of eleven, he entered the navy, in 
the Shannon, under the care of his friend and relation, the late 
Admiral Braith waite. In 1775, he was made a lieutenant by 
Admiral Graves, on the day that the battle was fought at Bunker’s 
Hill, at which he was present. In 1776, he was on the Jamaica 
station, as lieutenant of the Hornet sloop, while Nelson, then of 
the same rank, was in the Lowestoffe , and on the same service. 
From a very early period a close intimacy subsisted between these 
distinguished officers; and it has been observed that, whenever 
Nelson obtained an advance in rank, he was quickly followed by 
Collingwood. The latter succeeded him, first in the Lowestoffe , 
then in the Badger , of which ship Collingwood was commander in 
1779, and afterwards in the Hinchinbroke , which made them both 
post captains. The Hinckinbroke was, in the spring of 1780, 
employed on an expedition to the Spanish Main, from whence it 
w^as proposed to pass into the South Sea, by opening a navigable 
communication through the isthmus of Panama, along the river 
and the lakes Nicaragua and Leon. This plan was formed without 
a sufficient knowledge of the country, which presented difficulties 
not to be surmounted by human skill or perseverance. The climate 
was so unfavourable that the transports’ men all died, and some 
of the ships, having none left to take care of them, sunk in the 
harbour. 

From this scene he was relieved in August 1780, and in the fol¬ 
lowing year was wrecked, in the Pelican frigate, on the Morant Keys, 
the ship’s company escaping, with great difficulty, on rafts made 
of the small and broken yards. He then commanded the Samson , 
of sixty-four guns, and after the peace of 1783, was employed, 
with his friend Nelson, in suppressing the illicit traffic carried on 
by the citizens of the United States with the British West Indian 
Islands. Here he remained till the latter end of 1786, when, 
during an interval of repose, he visited his native county, Nor¬ 
thumberland. From hence, in 1790, he was again recalled to the 
West Indies; but returning to England that same year, his ser¬ 
vices in that quarter being no longer necessary, he was married to 
Miss Sarah Blackett. By this lady he had two daughters, the 
elder of whom was born 1792, and the other in 1793. On the 
commencement of the French war, in the latter of these years, 
he was appointed flag-captain of the Barfleur. He was engaged 

o o 


VOUNG MANS COMPANION 


282 

in the battle of the first of June, 1794, and though he did his 
duty nobly, was capriciously overlooked, by Lord Howe, in the 
subsequent distribution of medals. Others, however, did him 
justice. Captain Pakenham took every occasion to say, “ If Col- 
lingwood has not deserved a medal, neither have I, for we were 
together the whole day.' 11 He was subsequently appointed to the 
Excellent , and sailed to the Mediterranean. Here he again met 
with his old friend Nelson, in the command of the Captain , block¬ 
ading Leghorn ; both, however, soon appear to have been heartily 
sick of the wearisome, tantalizing, inglorious task of watching 
the French shut up in this and the other harbours of the 
Mediterranean. 

But days more congenial with the feelings of the two gallant 
friends, succeeded to the dull and harassing system of 
blockade. Both had their share in the battle of the 14th 
of February, 1797, off Cape St. Vincent, in which Nel¬ 
son performed feats of valour, and Collingwood was acknow¬ 
ledged by Lord St. Vincent, to have “ contributed very much to 
the fortune of the day,” particularly by relieving his old friend’s 
ship the Captain , when engaged with two of the enemy’s ships at 
a time. Nor was Nelson backward in acknowledging the services 
and gallant conduct of his friend on this occasion. Indeed, the 
conduct of the Excellent was the theme of praise from all quarters, 
which her commander appears to have received with feelings of 
gratitude, as well as with that becoming modesty which, through 
all his career, formed a marked feature in his character. The high 
spirit with which this temper was, however, combined, is well illus¬ 
trated by the following circumstance, which took place at the 
memorable period now referred to. When Lord St. Vincent 
informed him that he was to receive one of the medals distributed 
on this occasion, he told the admiral, with great feeling and firm¬ 
ness, that he could not consent to receive a medal while that for 
the 1st of June was withheld. “I feel,” said he, “that I was 
then improperly passed over, and to receive such a distinction 
now, would be to acknowledge the propriety of that injustice.” 
“ That is precisely the answer I expected from you, Captain 
Collingwood,” was Lord St. Vincent’s reply. Soon after this, the 
two medals were transmitted, at the same time, by Lord Spencer, 
with a civil apology for some delay in transmitting that for the 
1st of June. 

Towards the end of 1797, Captain Collingwood was again em¬ 
ployed on the blockading system before Cadiz, in which harassing 
service, by the strictness of which the Spanish trade was ruined, 
he was continued till January 1799, when the Excellent , being 


BIOGRAPHY. 


283 

]mid off, he was enabled once more to enjoy, for a few weeks, the 
society of his beloved family, in the north of England. But 
this repose was of very short duration, and in a few weeks, having 
been advanced to the rank of a rear-admiral, he was ordered to 
hoist his flag on board the Triumph. In the month of June, we 
find him with Lord Keith, in the Mediterranean. The tedious 
blockade of Brest which followed, was extremely harassing and 
irksome to all who were engaged in it, and the rigorous systems 
pursued, of keeping the ships out at all seasons, and preventing 
communication with each other, as well as all opportunity of 
corresponding with their friends at home, was no less injurious to 
the ships than to their crews, and became a general source of dis¬ 
satisfaction throughout the fleet. In attachment to his profession, 
and in correct notions of discipline, no one could be more distin¬ 
guished than Lord Collingwood. Yet we find him thus expressing 
his feelings in a letter to his father-in-law, dated from Torbay: 
“It is a great.comfort to me, banished as I am from all that is 
dear to me, to learn that my beloved Sarah and her girls are well. 
Would to heaven it were peace ! that I might come, and for the 
rest of my life be blessed in their affection. Indeed, this unre¬ 
mitting hard service is a great sacrifice, giving up all that is 
pleasurable to the soul, or soothing to the mind, and engaging in 
a constant contest with the elements, or with tempers and dispo¬ 
sitions as boisterous and untractable. Great allowance should be 
made for us when we come on shore ; for being long in the habits 
of absolute command, we grow impatient of contradiction, and are 
unfitted for the gentle intercourse of quiet life. I am really in 
great hopes that it will not be long before the experiment will 
be made upon me, for I think we shall soon have peace ; and I 
assure you that I will endeavour to conduct myself with as much 
moderation as possible. I have come to another resolution, 
which is, when this war is happily terminated, to think no 
more of ships, but pass the rest of my days in the bosom of 
my family, where I think my prospects of happiness are equal to 
any man's.” 

The short interval of peace which occurred in 1802, enabled 
Lord Colliugwood to return once more to Morpeth, his family seat, 
and, for a brief season, to realize these affectionate anticipations 
in the society of his wife and daughters. “ His amusements," says 
his relative and biographer, G. L. Newnham Collingwood, Esq. 
“ were found in the intercourse with his family, in drawing, planting, 
and the cultivation of his garden, which was on the beautiful river 
Wansbeck. But," he continues, “ while in cheerfulness and tran¬ 
quillity, he was thus fully realizing those hopes of happiness which 


£84 YOUNG man's companion 

he had so long entertained, hostilities with France recommenced ; 
and in the spring of 1808 he was once more called away from his 
home, to which he never returned again." When, in May, he 
joined Admiral Cornwallis, off Brest, “Here comes Collingwood," 
said that fine old seaman, “ the last to leave, and the first to rejoin 
me." His first ship at this period, was the Venerable; from her he 
shifted his flag to the Culloden , then to the Dreadnought , and 
lastly to the Royal Sovereign. It was in this ship that he bore so 
conspicuous a part in the battle of Trafalgar. That this battle 
would be fought, Lord Collingwood seems to have anticipated 
with a foresight almost prophetic, and during the previous manoeu¬ 
vres, he displayed a fine combination of gallantry and seamanship. 
With three sail of the line he blockaded Cadiz, and the combined 
fleets, numbering thirty-six; and when chased by sixteen, for the 
purpose of compelling him to enter the Straits of Gibraltar, he 
eluded all their efforts, though his own ship, the Dreadnought , 
was a very heavy sailer; when they tacked, he tacked after them; 
and when they crowded sail for Cadiz, he arrived off the harbour 
before half of them had got in, and with his three vessels resumed 
the blockade. The conduct and results of the great battle that 
followed have long been matters of history. Lord Collingwood 
was the second in command, and the first to begin the fight, which 
he did in the most able and gallant style. 

Lord Nelson had made the Royal Sovereigns signal to pass 
through the enemy's line at the twelfth ship from the rear; but 
Admiral Collingwood observing her to be a two-decked ship, and 
that the second astern of her was a first-rate, deviated so far from 
the order as to proceed to the attack of this last, which carried 
Admiral Alava’s flag. While they were running down, the well- 
known telegraphic signal was made, of “England expects every 
man to do his duty." When the admiral observed it first, he 
said that he wished Nelson would make no more signals, for they 
all understood what they were to do ; but when the purport of it 
was communicated to him, he expressed great delight and admira¬ 
tion, and made it known to the officers and ship’s company. Lord. 
Nelson had been requested by Captain Blackwood (who was 
anxious for the preservation of so invaluable a life) to allow some 
other vessel to take the lead, and at last gave permission that the 
Temeraire should go ahead of him; but resolving to defeat the 
order which he had given, he crowded more sail on the Victory , and 
maintained his place. The Royal Sovereign was far in advance, 
when Lieutenant Clavell observed that the Victory was setting her 
studding sails, and with that spirit of honourable emulation which 
prevailed between the squadrons, and particularly between these 


BIOGRAPHY. 


285 


two ships, lie pointed it out to Admiral Collingwood, and requested 
his permission to do the same. “ The ships of our line,” replied 
the admiral, u are not yet sufficiently up for us to do so now, 
but you may be getting ready.” The studding sails and halliards 
were accordingly manned, and in about ten minutes the admiral, 
observing Lieutenant Clavell’s eyes fixed upon him with a look of 
expectation, gave him a nod; on which that officer went to 
Captain Rotheram, and told him that the admiral desired him to 
make all sail. The order was then given to rig out, and hoist 
away, and in one instant the ship was under a crowd of sail, and 
went rapidly ahead. The admiral then directed the officers to 
see that all the men lay down on the decks, and were kept quiet. 
At this time the Fougueux , the ship astern of the Santa Anna , had 
closed up with the intention of preventing the Royal Sovereign 
from going through the line ; and when Admiral Collingwood 
observed it, he desired Captain Rotheram to steer immediately for 
the Frenchman, and carry away his bowsprit. To avoid this, the 
Fougueux backed her main top-sail, and suffered the Royal 
Sovereign to pass, at the same time beginning her fire, when the 
admiral ordered a gun to be occasionally fired at her, to cover his 
ship with smoke. The nearest of the English ships was now 
distant about a mile from the Royal Sovereign ; and it was at this 
time, while she was passing alone into the midst of the combined 
fleets, that Lord Nelson said to Captain Blackwood, “See how 
that noble fellow, Collingwood, takes his ship into action. How 
I envy him !” On the other hand, Admiral Collingwood, well 
knowing his commander and friend, observed, “ What would 
Nelson give to be here !” and it was then, too, that Admiral 
Villeneuve, struck with the daring manner in which the leading 
ships of the English squadrons came down, despaired of the issue 
of the contest. 

Admiral Collingwood’s conduct in this battle was justly rewarded 
by his being raised to the peerage by the title of Baron Collingwood, 
of Caldbourne and Hethpoole, in the county of Northumberland. 
He also received the thanks of both houses of parliament, and 
the grant of a pension of £2000 for his own life; and, in the event 
of his death, £1000 per annum to Lady Collingwood, and £500 
a year to each of his two daughters. But that which seems to have 
been most grateful to his feelings, was a letter written by order of 
the King, to the secretary of the Admiralty, expressing his 
Majesty's admiration and entire approbation of every part of his 
conduct. Theletter concludesthus :—“Thefeeling manner in which 
he describes the events of that great day and those subsequent, 
and the modesty with which he speaks of himself, whilst he does 


286 


YOUNG man’s COMPANION. 


justice in terms so elegant and so ample to the meritorious exer¬ 
tions of the gallant officers and men under his command, have also 
proved extremely satisfactory to the king.” 

After the battle of Trafalgar, Lord Collingwood received a 
commission as commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean station, 
to the same extent as that which Lord Nelson had held. This 
formed an entire new era in his life, and no man could have filled 
the important station, or managed the various political transactions 
in which he was necessarily engaged, with more dignity, judgment, 
and good effect, than he did. In all these varied transactions, he 
showed himself a profound, and provident, and truly English- 
hearted statesman. Indeed, so satisfied were the ministry with all 
his proceedings, that he was kept on this station, contrary to his 
ardent desire to return to the bosom of his family, till he was 
fairly worn out with anxiety, fatigue, and disease, to which, at last, 
he fell a victim. He died at sea, the day after he had set sail on 
his return to England, March 7, 1810, a martyr to his high sense 
of professional duty. In his own words, “ his life was his coun¬ 
try’s, and in her service it was sacrificed.” It is observed by his 
biographer, that the length and hardships of his service are with¬ 
out any parallel; that, of fifty years nearly, during which he 
continued in the navy, about forty-four were passed in active 
employment, chiefly abroad; and that in the eventful period from 
1793 till his death in 1810, he was only one year in England, the 
remainder of the time being principally employed in tedious 
blockades, rarely visiting a port; that on one occasion he actually 
kept the sea for the almost incredible space of twenty-two months, 
without once dropping anchor. 

Lord Collingwood was an admirable disciplinarian; kind and 
considerate towards his officers and men, but vigilant and firm. 
When the mutiny at the Nore had spread an insurgent spirit 
throughout the navy, he zealously cooperated in the well-judged 
and decided measures by which Lord St. Vincent repressed that 
disastrous tendency in the Mediterranean fleet. He had a 
dislike, ever afterwards, to the employment of the word on common 
occasions; and when his officers made use of the term mutinous, 
in designation of casual acts of insubordination, he would reply, 
•—“Mutiny, Sir ! Mutiny in my ship ! If it can have arrived at 
that, it must be my fault, and the fault of every one of my 
officers. It is a charge of the gravest nature, and it shall be 
most gravely inquired into.” The conduct of this consummate 
commander towards his officers and men, exhibits a fine combination 
of the firm disciplinarian and the kind-hearted superintendent. 
He never unbent with the crew, but he uniformly disapproved of 



biography. 


287 


all harsh, hasty, and discourteous expressions, even to the common 
sailors. He would admonish his officers on this point, in some 
such words as the following:—“ If you do not know a man’s 
name, call him 4 Sailor,’ and not 4 You sir, 1 and such other appella¬ 
tions ; they are offensive and improper. 11 He uniformly repro¬ 
bated unnecessary severity ; and as he grew older, his dislike to 
corporal punishment increased. A year has even been known to 
elapse, in his ship, without its infliction: he substituted privation 
and extra work, contriving to expose the offender to the ridicule 
of his shipmates, and to place him in circumstances of inconve¬ 
nience and restraint, without bodily pain or positive degradation. 
In sickness, the men received from him the kindest treatment: 
he visited them daily, supplied them from his own table, and when 
they were convalescent, had them put under the care of the 
lieutenant of the morning watch, and brought to himself every 
day for personal inspection. No wonder that a man like this was 
beloved by his crew, nor that they wept for his departure when he 
changed his ship, nor that he could depend upon their good will 
when other vessels were nearly in a state of insurrection. At the 
dark and menacing season to which we have already alluded, 
while capital punishments were frequently resorted to in the other 
vessels of Lord St. Vincent's fleet, Captain Collingwood’s ship 
was kept in order, almost without any corporal infliction whatsoever. 
So highly did that distinguished commander think of his character 
as a disciplinarian, that he would frequently order the most refrac¬ 
tory to be drifted into the Excellent .— 44 Send them to Colling- 
wood, 11 he would say, “ and he will bring them to order. 11 

Lord Collingwood has been distinguished as “a perfect example 
for an English sailor ; 11 affording at the same time 44 a memorable 
illustration, how, in every noble heart, humanity and gentleness 
are the inseparable companions of true valour.’ 1 It is delightful 
to contemplate in his lordship’s beautiful letters to his family, the 
freshness and purity of the domestic affection, as existing in the 
breast of the stern son of ocean and war, and to observe the 
tenderness with which his mind was perpetually turning to the 
home which he was destined never to revisit. All the world 
knew that Lord Collingwood was an excellent officer, whose 
services had been eminently conducive to the safety and glory of 
the British nation. But it was not till the publication of the 
biography to which we are indebted for most of the above inci¬ 
dents, that his character could be fully appreciated, as an accom¬ 
plished gentleman, a most mild and benevolent man, and, in 
short, one of the brightest ornaments of his country, as well as of 
the profession to which he belonged. The remains ol his lord- 


238 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


ship were conveyed to England, and deposited by the side of Ilia 
friend, Lord Nelson, in St. Paul's cathedral, where a monument 
was also erected, by vote of parliament, to his memory.—See 
Public and Private Correspondence of Vice-Admiral Lord 
Collingwood, with Memoirs of his Life, by G. L. Newnham 
Collingwood, Esq. 


Section III.—Poets and Men of Literature. 

DR. JOHNSON. 

% 

Dr. Samuel Johnson, one of the most celebrated English 
writers, was born at Lichfield, in Staffordshire, September 18, 
1709. His father, Michael Johnson, was a bookseller, and more 
than once bore the office of magistrate in the city. Johnson in¬ 
herited from his father a morbid melancholy, which accompanied 
him through life, and a tinge of scrofula, which disfigured a face 
naturally well formed, and deprived him of the sight of one of his 
eyes. 

When arrived at a proper age, he was placed in the free school 
of Lichfield, of which Mr. Hunter was then master; a man 
whom his pupil thought “ wrong-headedly severe," but a skilful 
teacher. At the age of fifteen Johnson was sent to the school of 
Stourbridge, in Worcestershire. On his return home, he read a 
great deal in a desultory manner, so that, when in his nineteenth 
year he was entered a commoner of Pembroke College, Oxford, 
his mind was stored with a variety of such knowledge as js not 
often acquired in universities. His father being unable to support 
him at college, complied with the proposal of Mr. Corbet, of 
maintaining Samuel at Oxford, as companion to his son. Johnson 
was careless of his character, with respect to the discipline and 
studies of the place, yet he obtained credit by some of his com¬ 
positions, of which the most distinguished was a translation into 
Latin of Pope's Messiah. In the year 1731 he was obliged, bv 
poverty, to leave the university without a degree; and his father, 
who died a few months afterwards, left him destitute of the 
means of subsistence. In March, 1732, he accepted an invitation 
to the office of undermaster of a free school, at Market Bosworth, 
in Leicestershire; but being disgusted with the treatment which 
he received from the patron of the school, he relinquished, in a 
few months, a situation which he ever afterwards recollected with 
horror. 



BIOGRAPHY. 


289 


He was soon after invited by a Mr. Hector, who had been his 
school-fellow, and was his intimate friend, to pass some time with 
him at Birmingham, as his guest, at the house of Mr. Warren, 
with whom Mr. Hector then resided. Mr. Warren was the first 
established bookseller in Birmingham, and was very attentive to 
Johnson, who, he soon found, could be of much service to him in 
his trade, by his knowledge of literature; and he even obtained 
the assistance of his pen in furnishing some numbers of a periodical 
essay, printed in the newspaper of which Warren was proprietor. 
He continued to live as Mr. Hector's guest for about six months, 
and then hired lodgings in another part of the town. He made 
some valuable acquaintances there, amongst whom were Mr. 
Porter, a mercer, whose widow he afterwards married; and Mr. 
Taylor, who by his ingenuity in mechanical inventions, and 
his success in trade, acquired a large fortune. But the advantage 
of being near his friend Hector is said to have been his chief in¬ 
ducement for continuing here. During his stay at Birmingham, 
he translated from the French Lobo's Voyage to Abyssinia, 
which was published in one volume, octavo, in 1735, and for 
which he received from the bookseller five guineas. 

Before this book was printed, Johnson returned to Lichfield, 
and there published “ Proposals for Printing the Latin Poems of 
Politian, with notes, and the Life of Politian, See.” in one volume, 
at the price of five shillings, in sheets ; but he did not meet with 
a sufficient number of subscribers to encourage him to proceed in 
/'is design. In 1735 he married, and soon after set up a private 
academy; for which purpose he hired a large house, well situate 
near his native city. In the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1736 is 
the following advertisement:—“At Edial, near Lichfield, in 
Staffordshire, young gentlemen are boarded and taught the Latin 
and Greek languages, by Samuel Johnson.” But the only pupils 
that were put under his care were the celebrated David Garrick 
and his brother George, and a young gentleman of fortune of 
the name of Offely, who died early. Meeting with so little en¬ 
couragement in his academy, he came up to London in March 
1737, in company with Garrick, who then intended to follow the 
profession of the law, from which he was soon diverted by his 
strong propensity to the stage. Johnson was recommended by his 
friend Gilbert Walmsley, registrar of the prerogative court of 
Lichfield, to Mr. Colson, an eminent mathematician, and master 
of an academy, in a letter, wherein is the following passage : 
“ Davy Garrick is to be with you early the next week ; and Mr. 
Johnson, to try his fate with a tragedy, and to see to get himself 
employed in some translation, either from the Latin or the French. 


290 YOUNG man's companion. 

Johnson is a very good scholar and poet, and I have great hopes 
will turn out a fine tragedy writer.’ 1 

His first patron in London was Edward Cave, the printer of the 
Gentleman’s Magazine; and his contributions to that work 
became for many years his principal resource for employment and 

support. Soon after his arrival in London, he finished his 

tragedy of Irene, and endeavoured to get it brought upon the 
stage, but he had not sufficient interest for that purpose; and it 
was not acted till 1749, when his friend David Garrick was 
manager of Drury Lane Theatre. In 1738 he published his 
“ London, 11 a poem in imitation of the third satire of Juvenal. 
This gained him some reputation, and excited the attention of Pope; 
but the difficulties which he met with in London occasioned him, 
in 1789, to be desirous of being chosen master of a country free 
school, the salary of which was sixty pounds a year. This 

humble situation, however, he could not attain. It was necessary 
that he should be a master of arts; and Lord Gower was 

prevailed upon to write a letter in his favour to a friend of Dean 
Swift’s, in order to induce him to use his interest with Swift, to 
procure the degree of master of arts for Johnson from Trinity 
College, Dublin. But this application was unsuccessful; and 
there is much reason to believe that this was the source of that 
dislike to Swift which Johnson afterwards manifested, both in his 
conversation and in his writings. 

In 1789 he published a complete “ Vindication of the Licens¬ 
ers of the Stage, 11 from the malicious and scandalous aspersion of 
Mr. Brooke, author of Gustavus Vasa. This was an ironical, but 
a very proper attack, upon the Lord Chamberlain, for the unjustifi¬ 
able suppression of that tragedy. The same year he published 
“ Marmor Norfolciense ; or, an Essay on an Ancient Prophetical 
Inscription, in Monkish Rhyme, lately discovered near Lynn, in 
Norfolk, by Probus Britannicus.” In this performance, lie in a 
feigned inscription, supposed to have been found in Norfolk, 
the county of Sir Robert Walpole, inveighs against the Bruns¬ 
wick succession, and the measures of government consequent upon 
it. To this supposed prophecy he added a commentary very 
unfavourable to the family upon the throne. 

Johnson also published “Proposals for Printing the History of 
the Council of Trent, translated from the Italian of Father Paul 
Sarpi; with the Author’s Life, and Notes, Theological, His¬ 
torical* and Critical, from the French edition of Dr. le Courayer. 11 
Some sheets of this were printed in quarto, by Cave, but the 
work was never finished. In 1774 he published, in octavo, his 
“Life of Richard Savage; 1 ’ and the same year he wrote' the 


BIOGRAPHY 


291 

preface to tiie “ Harleian Miscellany.' 11 The following year he 
published a pamphlet, entitled “ Miscellaneous Observations on 
the Tragedy of Macbeth, with Remarks on Sir Thomas Hanmer s 
Edition of Shakspeare ; 11 to which he affixed Proposals for a new 
edition of that poet. In 1747 he published, in octavo, the “ Plan 
of his Dictionary of the English Language,” which he addressed to 
the Earl of Chesterfield, then secretary of state. The book¬ 
sellers who contracted with Johnson for the execution of this 
work were Mr. Robert Dodsley, Mr. Charles Hitch, Mr. Andrew 
Millar, the two Messrs. Longman, and the two Messrs. Knapton. 
The price stipulated was £1,575. Lord Chesterfield affected 
to patronize the work, but rendered so little service to Johnson of 
any kind, that he afterwards expressed himself of his pretended 
patron in terms not a little contemptuous. 

In 1749 he published “The Vanity of Human Wishes,” in 
imitation of the tenth satire of Juvenal. Mr. Boswell says, that 
the “ Vanity of Human Wishes 11 is, in the opinion of the best 
judges, as high an effort of ethic poetry as any language can 
show. The instances of variety of disappointment are chosen so 
judiciously, and painted so strongly, that the moment they are 
read, they bring conviction to every thinking mind. The same 
year his tragedy of Irene was performed at Drury Lane Theatre : 
by the favour of Garrick it was acted nine nights, but it was not 
received with any great degree of applause. 

In 1750 Dr.Johnson began to publish his “Rambler, 11 in 
periodical numbers, and it was concluded in 1752. It is 
observed by the author of the “ Essay on the Life, Character, 
and Writings of Dr. Samuel Johnson, 11 that ‘‘it is to this admi¬ 
rable performance that he owes much of his reputation. It was 
not, however, on its first publication, very popular, nor very gene¬ 
rally read. But the great merit of this work was at length 
acknowledged. It has since passed through many editions, and 
been translated into foreign languages. In the ‘Rambler 1 
indeed, the finest sentiments of morality and of piety are 
rendered delightful by the harmony and splendour of the 
language. In his ‘ Lives of the Poets, 1 as well as in some of his 
other works, there are no inconsiderable number of exceptionable 
passages, but his ‘ Ramblers 1 are almost uniformly entitled to 
applause. The morality inculcated is pure, and the piety in 
general is rational; and the criticisms and observations on life 
and manners are acute and instructive. It is one of those works 
which may repeatedly be read, and which will repeatedly 
delight. 11 

In 1755 the university of Oxford conferred on Johnson the 


292 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


degree of master of arts by diploma ; and the same year lie pub¬ 
lished, in two volumes, folio, his “ Dictionary of the English 
Language and the following year he published an abridge¬ 
ment of it, in two volumes, octavo. He afterwards occasionally 
employed himself in writing for magazines, and other periodical 
publications. In 1758 he published his “ History of Rasselas, 
Prince of Abyssinia.” 

In 1762 he received a pension from the king of <P300 a year, 
which was continued to the end of his life. In 1765 the degree 
of doctor of laws was conferred on him by Trinity College, 
Dublin; and he received, some years after, the same degree from 
the university of Oxford. In 1765 he published his edition of 
Shakspeare; and this year he was introduced into the family of 
Mr. Thrale, an eminent and wealthy brewer, and member of 
parliament for the borough of Southwark. Mr. Boswell remarks, 
that “ nothing could be more fortunate for Johnson than this con¬ 
nexion. He had at Mr. Thrale’s all the comforts and even 
luxuries of life; his melancholy was diverted, and his irregular 
habits lessened by an association with an agreeable and well- 
ordered family. He was treated with the utmost respect, and 
even affection. The vivacity of Mr. Thrale’s literary talk 
roused him to cheerfulness and exertion, even when they were 
alone. But this was not often the case, for he found here a 
constant succession of what gave him the highest enjoyment; the 
society of the learned, the witty, and the eminent in every way, 
who were assembled in numerous companies, called forth his won¬ 
derful powers, and gratified him with admiration, to which no man 
could be insensible.” In 1767 he had a private interview with 
the king, in the library at the Queen’s Palace. In 1770 he pub¬ 
lished his “ False Alarmthe following year, “Thoughts con¬ 
cerning Falkland’s Islandsand in 1774, “ The Patriot.” 
These political pamphlets have great merit in point of language; 
but they contain much gross misrepresentation, and much malig¬ 
nity, and abound with such arbitrary principles as are totally in¬ 
consistent with a free constitution. 

In the autumn of the year 1773 he undertook a journey to the 
Hebrides, or Western Islands of Scotland, of which he published 
an account, in one volume, octavo, in 1775. Dr. Towers 
observes, that “ this is a very masterly performance ; for, besides 
a very pleasing account of his journey, it also contains a variety of 
acute observations on human life, and many curious incidental 
remarks relative to the history of literature, with which Dr. 
Johnson was very intimately conversant. In this journey he was 
accompanied by Mr. Boswell; and the habitual good humour of 


BIOGRAPHY. 


293 


this gentleman, liis vivacity, his love of literature, and his personal 
attachment to Johnson, together with his natural influence in 
Scotland, must have rendered him a very agreeable companion to 
him during the course of his tour to the Hebrides. Of this 
journey Mr. Boswell has himself since published an account, 
which is highly entertaining, and which appears to contain a very 
natural, exact, and faithful representation, not only of the 
incidents which occurred during the tour, but also of the singular 
manners of his learned and celebrated friend.’ 1 

In 1775 he travelled into France, with Mr. and Mrs. Tlirale; 
and Foote, who happened to be at Paris at the same time, said, 
that the French were quite astonished at his figure and manner, 
and at his dress, which was exactly the same with what he was ac¬ 
customed to wear in London. It w^as this year that he published 
his “ Taxation no Tyranny; an Answer to the Resolutions and 
Address of the American Congress.” This pamphlet contained 
the same arbitrary principles with his former political pieces, and 
the grossest and most virulent abuse of the Americans. 

In 1779, when he was seventy years of age, he published his 
u Lives of the Poets. 11 These considered as compositions, possess 
a very high degree of merit, and contain a great variety of acute 
and admirable reflections; but they are often very far from con¬ 
taining just, candid, or impartial accounts concerning whom he 
wrote. Bishop Newton says, “ Never was any biographer more 
sparing of his praises, or more abundant in his censures. He 
seemingly delights more in exposing blemishes than in recommen¬ 
ding beauties: slightly passes over excellences, and enlarges 
upon imperfections. 11 

Dr. Johnson died at his house in Bolt Court, Fleet Street, on 
the 13th of September, 1784, in the 75th year of his age, and 
was interred in-Westminster Abbey. The following character 
has been given of him by Mr. Boswell in his journal of their tour 
to the Hebrides: “ Dr. Samuel Johnson’s character, religious, 
moral, political, and literary, nay, his figure and manner, are, 
I believe, more generally known than those of almost any man ; 
yet it may not be surperfluous here to attempt a sketch of him. 
Let my readers then remember that he was a sincere and zealous 
Christian of the high church of England, and monarchical prin¬ 
ciples, which he would not tamely suffer to be questioned ; steady 
and inflexible in maintaining the obligations of piety and virtue, 
both from a regard to the order of society, and from a veneration 
to the great source of all order; correct, nay stern in his taste ; 
hard to please, and easily offended ; impetuous and irritable in his 
temper, but of a most humane and benevolent heart; having * 


294 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


mind stored with a vast and various collection of learning and 
knowledge, which he communicated with peculiar perspicuity and 
force, in rich and choice expression. He united a most logical 
head with a most fertile imagination, which gave him an extraor¬ 
dinary advantage in arguing; for he could reason close or wide, 
as he saw best for the moment. He could, when he chose it, be 
the greatest sophist that ever wielded a weapon in the schools of 
declamation ; but he indulged this only in conversation, for he 
owned he sometimes talked for victory : he was too conscientious 
to make error permanent and pernicious by deliberately writing it. r> 

The works of Dr. Johnson were published together in eleven 
vols. 8vo, in 1787, and two additional volumes have since been 
added. Two vols. 8vo, of letters have also been published by 
Mrs. Piozzi. 


COWPER. 

This eminent Christian poet, was born at Berkhamstead, in 
Hertfordshire, November 26, 1731. His father, Dr. John 
Cowper, was chaplain to King George II. and nephew to Lord 
Chancellor Cowper. His mother was the daughter of Roger 
Donne, Esq., and a woman of exemplary character and extraordi¬ 
nary merit. Her death, which happened when Cowper was about 
six years old, seems to have made a deep and mournful impression 
on Ins tender and delicate mind; so much so, that the recollection 
of it nearly fifty years afterwards, being awakened by the receipt 
of her portrait, drew from him a poem which is justly regarded as 
one of the most beautiful and pathetic compositions in existence. 
A t six years old he was sent to a considerable school at Market 
Street, in Hertfordshire, where he suffered much from hardships of 
various kinds, for which he was but ill prepared, by his natural 
delicacy of constitution, as well as the timidity of his mind, and 
the great tenderness with which he had till then been treated. 
Being afflicted with a weakness and inflammation in his eyes, he 
was placed for some time under the care of an eminent oculist in 
London, and was afterwards sent to Westminster school. The 
acuteness of his feelings, and the unsuitableness of this scene to 
his peculiar character, rendered those years which might have 
produced a series of enjoyment, miserable years of increasing 
timidity and depression. 

At the age of eighteen he left Westminster, where he had acquired 
the accomplishments and reputation of scholarship, as well as the 
esteem of some aspiring youths, who afterwards rose to eminence, 
lie was now placed with an attorney for three years ; a situation 


mOGIlAPIIY. 


295 


very irksome to bis feelings, and which promoted his constitutional 
tendency to melancholy. At the expiration of this term, he became, 
as he informs us, in a short memoir written by himself, his own 
master, a.nd took chambers in the Inner Temple. But he had 
not been long here before he was struck with a deep dejection of 
mind, which at once disinclined and unfitted him for any kind of 
application. He searched in vain for any thing that would interest 
or amuse him, till he met with Herbert's Poems : the strain of 
piety which pervaded them, and which he so much admired, seemed 
for a time to alleviate his malady; but he continued in a wretched 
state of mind for nearly a twelvemonth; when he says, having 
proved the inefficacy of all human means, he began to think seriously 
of religion, and from this source obtained a degree of calmness of 
mind to which he had long been a stranger. He soon after, however, 
banished all thoughts of God and religion, and indulged his ap¬ 
petites for amusement, till at length his conscience became silent, 
except that it would sometimes suggest a doubt of the safety of 
persisting in a course so contrary to the dictates of the gospel. 

The natural diffidence and despondency of his mind having pre¬ 
cluded the hope that Cowper would rise to eminence in his pro¬ 
fession, his friends turned their attention to some other means of 
obtaining a comfortable income, and proposed his becoming can¬ 
didate for the offices of reading clerk, and clerk of the private 
committees in the house of lords; but the idea of reading in public 
was such a terror to him, that he declined accepting this offer, and 
was appointed clerk of the journals, asthebusiness of that office was 
transacted privately. But a parliamentary dispute rendering it 
necessary for him to appear at the bar of the house, in order to 
entitle himself publicly to the office, all his terrors and despon¬ 
dency returned, and he felt convinced that on these terms he could 
never gain the office ; yet the interest of his friends who had intro¬ 
duced him, his own reputation, and his reduced circumstances, 
urged him to undertake what he saw to be impracticable. Speaking 
of the miserable state of his mind at this period, he says, “ Those 
whose spirits are formed like mine, to whom a public exhibition 
of themselves is mortal poison, may have some idea of the horrors 
of my situation : others can have none." His perpetual distress 
brought on a nervous fever, which rendered change of scene ne¬ 
cessary, and he repaired to Margate, where he somewhat recovered 
his spirits, by turning away his thoughts from the ensuing crisis. 
On his return, however, to business, all his terrors increased, and 
all the pains he could take to prepare himself for the situation, 
were rendered useless by the persuasion of his own mind, that 
whatever knowledge he might acquire, it would forsake him at the 


296 


YOUNG man's COMPANION. 


bar of the house. The anguish of his mind rapidly increased as 
the time approached, and he could only comfort himself with the 
hope that he should, from all appearance, before the day appointed, 
lose his senses; but as day after day, and week after week, they 
were still preserved, he began to direct his attention to that most 
awful and mistaken method of escaping the difficulties of life, 
self-murder. At this period he met with several circumstances 
which had a tendency to lessen the crime of suicide in his estima¬ 
tion, but his resolution was soon fixed. The scenes which followed 
are too dreadful for description ; it is sufficient to say, that he made 
several attempts to execute his horrid purpose, which were by 
various providential circumstances rendered ineffectual, but which 
of course unfitted him for appearing in the house, and his claims 
to the office were entirely resigned. Mr. Cowper says of himself, 
that he now, for the first time, earnestly sought to become ac¬ 
quainted with the great truths of religion ; but despondency had 
seized so fast hold of his mind, that he could view only the enor¬ 
mity of his crimes, and the condemnation which he concluded they 
must bring upon him ; it was in vain that his brother (to whom he 
had written on account of his distress) endeavoured to turn his 
thoughts towards the mercy of God, as it is displayed in the gospel 
dispensation. By means of frequent conversations with his es¬ 
teemed friend, Mr. Maden, he however obtained for a time some 
decree of calmness ; but the mental disorder to which he was con- 
stitutionally prone, seized him in a short time, and it was found 
necessary to place him under the care of Dr. Cotton, at St. Alban’s. 
On this part of his history Mr. Hayley very justly observes : “ The 
misfortune of mental derangement is a topic of such awful delicacy, 
that I consider it is the duty of a biographer rather to sink in 
tender silence, than to proclaim, with circumstantial and offensive 
temerity, the minute particulars of a calamity to which all human 
beings are exposed, and perhaps in proportion as they have re¬ 
ceived from nature those delightful and dangerous gifts, a heart of 
exquisite tenderness and a mind of creative energy.” 

From December 1763, to the following July, this amiable man 
suffered all the wretchedness attendant on his disorder. At that 
time his health being much improved by means of the medical 
skill of Dr. Cotton, his views of religion became less gloomy, till 
at length he ventured to read some parts of the Bible, and there 
saw so much benevolence and mercy of the Saviour, that he wept 
with pleasure, while he said to himself, “ Still there is mercy.” 
His physician and friends perceived the alteration, and were ap¬ 
prehensive lest the sudden transition from pain to joy should be 
too much for his weak frame. In a short time, however, they were 


BIOGRAPHY. 


291 


satisfied of the soundness of his cure, and Cowper wishing to reside 
near his brother, who was a fellow of Bene't College, Cambridge, 
relinquished all thoughts of engaging in the pursuits of business, 
and retired to Huntingdon. Here he at first felt rather lonely, as 
he had no friend nearer than Cambridge, a distance of sixteen miles; 
but so completely was the tone of his mind altered, that he expe¬ 
rienced a degree of joy and satisfaction in the consolations which 
religion affords, which kept him in a constant spirit of tranquillity 
and gratitude. 

In the course of a few months a young man named Unwin, who 
had frequently watched Cowper with much interest, determined to 
become acquainted with him, and Cowper was by this means intro¬ 
duced into a family circle very congenial to his taste; and as they 
were much delighted with his society, their mutual esteem led to 
his becoming an inmate in the family; and from them he received 
all the kind attention which friendship and affection could dictate. 
In 1767 Mr. Unwin, the father, was killed by a fill from his horse, 
and Cowper removed with the widow to Olney. Here he contracted 
a close friendship with the late Mr. Newton, then rector of the 
parish, and afterwards for many years rector of St. Mary Woolnoth, 
London ; an excellent man, whose religious opinions harmonized 
with his own. When Mr. Newton published his volume of Hymns, 
called “ The Olney Collection,” it was enriched with many compo¬ 
sitions from the pen of Cowper, which bear internal evidence of a 
cultivated understanding, and an original genius. His time was 
now dedicated to literary leisure, in which the mind, left to its 
own operations, follows up that line of pursuit which is the most 
congenial to its taste, and the most adapted to its powers. In his 
garden, in his library, and in his daily walks, he seems to have dis¬ 
ciplined his muse to the picturesque and vivid habits of description, 
which will always distinguish Cowper among our national poets. 
In 1768 he was visited by a heavy affliction, in the illness and 
death of his brother, for whom he possessed the highest esteem and 
affection. Cowper hastened to Cambridge on the first news of his 
illness, and the scenes which passed between these two affectionate 
brothers are beautifully described in a narrative he was induced to 
write, and which Mr. Newton published in 1802. 

After residing for three or four years at Olney, Cowper’s mind 
sunk into severe paroxysms of despondency, which continued for 
several years. Mrs, Unwin was his constant and faithful attendant, 
and at length received the reward of her maternal assiduity, in seeing 
the fine and powerful mind of Cowper gradually recover its capacity 
for enjoyment and exertion. His first amusement was that of edu¬ 
cating a group of tame hares, of whom he has given a minute anl 

Q Q 


598 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION, 


admirable description in prose, which was published in the second 
volume of his poems. Mr. Newton being about to remove from 
Olney to an enlarged sphere of usefulness in London, kindly intro¬ 
duced Mr. Bull of Newport Pagnell to the acquaintance of Cowper, 
that he might not be left without a friend in the neighbourhood. 
In 1781 our poet first published a volume containing many poems 
of extraordinary merit, but which are now so well known that it is 
needless to give any particular description of them ; it is sufficient 
to say, that they were not less admirable for wit and humour, than 
for pathos and sublimity. In the following winter, as the poet 
was sitting with his friends, Mrs. Unwin and Lady Ann Austin, 
who then resided with them, Lady Austin perceiving him much de¬ 
pressed told him the story of John Gilpin, for the sake of diversion ; 
the tale so much took his fancy, that during the night he turned it 
into the humorous ballad which is so justly and generally admired. 
To the same lady the public are indebted for the origin of the 
Task, the masterpiece of Cowper’s poetic talents. Being an admirer 
of Milton’s blank verse, Lady Austin had often requested the poet 
to write in that measure; and he at length said, “ If you will give 
me a subject, I will.” “ You can be at no loss for that,” was the 
reply; “ write on this sofa.” He did so, and expanded the poem 
till it embraced almost every subject of importance. This, with 
his Tirocinium, and several miscellaneous pieces, formed his 
second volume, which was published in 1784. About two years 
afterwards he removed with Mrs. Unwin from Olney, to the plea¬ 
sant village of Weston ; a change which added greatly to his com¬ 
fort, and much improved his health. He had not been long here 
before he was accidentally introduced to the acquaintance of Mr. 
Hayley, afterwards his excellent and admired biographer. In the 
following summer he was with much difficulty persuaded to pay a 
visit to Eartham, the residence of Mr. Hayley, who seized this 
opportunity of engaging Romney, an eminent artist, to take his 
portrait. 

Soon after his return to Weston his health began to decline ; 
and the constant sight of his endeared companion, Mrs. Unwin, 
who had been reduced by two paralytic strokes to a melancholy 
state of bodily and mental imbecility, added to the diminution of 
his small fortune, preyed on his tender spirits, and brought on his 
mental disorder. His cousin, Lady Hesketh, devoted her time 
and abilities entirely to his comfort; and his kinsman, Mr. 
Johnson, exerted himself for his amusement, but in vain. In 
1794, a pension from his majesty was granted him, which would 
have relieved the poet’s mind from all anxiety on account of his 
circumstances; but his malady deprived him of all power of 


BIOGRAPHY. 


299 


receiving comfort. As the last hope of his friends, his removal to 
the sea-coast of Norfolk was proposed, and Mr. Johnson kindly 
undertook the charge of the two sufferers. By the constant 
efforts of Mr. Johnson, who took a house in the neighbourhood 
of Dereham for the winter, he was sometimes diverted, and was 
even induced to attempt the correction of his translation of Homer’s 
Iliad, which he had undertaken a few years before, as well as that 
of the Odyssey. But this was only a temporary revival; in a few 
months he again sunk into the most pitiable melancholy. In 
December, 1796, Mrs. Unwin, whose powers had been gradually 
wasting, expired without a struggle. Cowper was much distressed 
at taking his leave of the corpse, but never mentioned the name 
of his friend again. In the course of the following year his 
disorder was in a measure mitigated, by frequent visits to the sea¬ 
side ; he revised his translation of Homer’s Odyssey, and wrote 
some small original pieces. In the latter end of March, 1799, 
he wrote some stanzas, entitled the “ Castaway,” founded on an 
anecdote in Anson’s Voyages. 

He afterwards became too ill to attend to any employment; 
and on the 13th of April, 1800, alarming symptoms appeared. 
On the 13th, Mr. Johnson, fearing his death might be neai; 
ventured to speak of his approaching dissolution, as a signal oi 
his deliverance from his bodily and mental sufferings. After a 
pause of a few moments, which was less interrupted by the 
objections of his desponding friend than he expected, he added a 
consideration still more consolatory; namely, that in the world to 
which he w r as hastening, a merciful Redeemer had prepared un¬ 
speakable happiness for all his children, and therefore for him. 
To the first part of this sentence he listened with tolerable com¬ 
posure ; but the concluding words were no sooner uttered, than his 
passionately expressed entreaties that his companion would desist 
from any further observations of the kind, clearly proved, that 
though he was on the eve of being invested with angelic light, 
the darkness of delusion still veiled his spirit. From this mournful 
period, till the features of his deceased friend were closed from 
iiis view, the expression which his kinsman observed in them, and 
which he delighted to suppose an index of the last thoughts and 
enjoyments of his soul, was that of calmness and composure, 
mingled with holy surprise. On the 25th a deadly change was 
observed to have taken place, and after remaining for twelve 
hours in an insensible state, he ceased to breathe. In so mild 
and gentle a manner did his spirit take its flight, that the moment 
of its departure was unobserved, even by those friends whose eye^ 
were fixed on his dying countenance. 


800 YOUNG man’s companion. 

“ The person and life of Cowper,” says Mr. Hay ley, “seem to 
have been formed with equal kindness by nature; and it may be 
questioned, if she ever bestowed on any man, with a fonder 
prodigality, all the requisites to conciliate affection and to inspire 
respect. He was beloved and revered by all who knew him, with 
a sort of idolatry. I may be suspected of speaking with fond 
partiality the unperceived exaggerations of friendship; btft the 
fear of such a censure shall not deter me from bearing my most 
deliberate testimony to the excellency of him whose memory J 
revere, and saying, that as a man he made, of all men whom I ever 
had opportunities to observe so minutely, the nearest approaches 
to moral perfection. 11 Lord Thurlow has expressed the same idea 
of his character; for being once requested to describe him, he 
replied, with that solemn air of dignified elocution by which he 
w r as accustomed to give a very forcible effect to a few simple words, 
“ Cowper is truly a good man. 1 ’ 

SIR WALTER SCOTT. 

Sir Walter Scott, our most eminent novelist, and often designated 
as the Great Magician of the North, was born at Edinburgh, 
May 15, 1771. He was the third son of Walter Scott, Esq., 
writer to the signet, by Anne, daughter of Dr. John Rutherford, 
professor of the practice of medicine in the university of Edinburgh. 
The first seminary which he attended w r as one for English and 
other ordinary branches of education, kept by a Mr. Leechman, in 
Hamilton’s Entry, Bristo Street. He entered Fraser’s class at 
the High School in the third year; that is to say, when that 
master had carried his class through one half of the ordinary 
curriculum of the school. After two years of instruction under 
Mr. Fraser, young Scott, in October 1781, entered the rector’s 
class, then taught by Dr. Alexander Adam. As a school-boy he 
was by no means remarkable for proficiency. In his exercises 
there was much blundering and incorrectness; and there is his 
own authority for saying, that even in the exercise of metrical 
translation he fell far short of some of his companions. The 
future author of Waverley left the High School in 1783, ranking 
only eleventh in the Rector’s class. It is the tradition of the 
family that our poet wished at this period of his life to become a 
soldier. An illness* however, which had beset his early years, 
rendered this wish bootless, even although his parents had* been 
inclined to gratify it. His malady had had the effect of con¬ 
tracting his right leg, so that he could hardly walk erect, even 
with the toes of that foot upon the ground. 




BIOGRAPHY. 


301 


After having been two years under the rector of the High 
School, he was placed in the university of Edinburgh, October 

1783. He was matriculated in that year, at once, for the 
Humanity or Latin class under Professor Hill, and the Greek 
class under Professor Dalzell; and for the latter, once more in 

1784. But the only other class for which he seems to have 
matriculated at the college was that of logic, under Professor 
Bruce, in 1785. While still at the High School, he made his 
first attempt in original versification, the subject being a thunder 
storm, which happened one day as he and his companions were 
amusing themselves in the yard. “ When boyhood advancing 
into youth,'” as he says in an autobiographical sketch, “ required 
more serious studies and graver cares, a long illness threw me 
back on the kingdom of fiction, as if it were by a species of 
fatality.” About his sixteenth year Walter’s health experienced 
a sudden but most decisive change for the better. Though his 
lameness remained the same, his body became tall and robust, 
and he was thus enabled to apply himself with the necessary 
degree of energy for his studies for the bar. At the same time 
that he attended the lectures of Professor Hick on civil law in the 
college, he performed the duties of a writers apprentice under his 
father. On the 10th of July, 1792, when on the point of com- . 
piecing his twenty-first year, he passed advocate with the usual 
forms. The young barrister was enabled, by the affluence of his 
father, to begin life in an elegant house in a fashionable part of 
the town ; but it was not his lot to acquire either wealth or dis¬ 
tinction at the bar. 

In the beginning of the year 1797, it was judged necessary by 
the gentlemen of Mid-Lothian to imitate the example already set 
by several counties, by embodying themselves in a cavalry corps. 
This association assumed the name of the Royal Mid-Lothian 
regiment of Cavalry ; and Mr. Scott was appointed its adjutant, for 
which officehis lameness was considered no disqualification, especially 
as he happened to be a remarkable graceful equestrian. He became 
a signally zealous officer, and very popular in the regiment, on 
account of his extreme good humour and powers of social enter¬ 
tainment. In December 1797, the poet married Miss Margaret 
Charlotte Carpenter, daughter of the deceased John Carpenter, 
Esq. of the city of Lyons. The young lady had some fortune. 
After a protracted correspondence with Lord Downshire, her 
guardian, the match was concluded upon, and carried into effect 
at Carlisle. Soon after this period Mr. Scott established himself, 
during the vacations, in a delightful retreat at Laswade, on • the 
banks of the Esk, about five miles to the south of Edinburgh. 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


302 

For some years before the end of the century he had been in 
the habit of making periodically, what he called “ raids, 11 into 
Liddesdale, for the purpose of collecting the ballad poetry of that 
romantic and most primitive district. His collections of Liddesdale, 
joined to various contributions from reciters in other parts of the 
country, formed his first publication of any note, “ The Minstrelsy 
of the Scottish Border. 11 This work issued in 1802, from the 
printing press of his early friend Mr. James Ballantyne, of 
Kelso. It displayed a vast quantity of curious and abstruse 
learning; and, in particular, a most intimate acquaintance with 
the district of Scotland which had hitherto received hardly any' 
attention either from the historian or from the antiquarian. 

Previous to this period, in December 1799, he had been 
favoured, through the interest of his friends, with the Crown 
appointment of Sheriff of Selkirkshire, to which was attached 
a salary of 300/. a year. This office, while it imposed no 
oppressive duties, rendered it necessary that he should reside 
a certain part of the year in Selkirkshire, and he therefore 
engaged the house of Ashiesteil, on the banks of the Tweed, 
which continued to be his country residence till he removed 
to Abbotsford. In 1804, Mr. Scott increased his reputation 
as a literary antiquary, by publishing the ancient minstrel tale of 
“ Sir Tristram,” which he showed, in a learned disquisition, to 
have been composed by Thomas of Ercildoune, commonly called 
Thomas the Rymer, a personage well known in Scottish tradition, 
and who flourished in the thirteenth century. By this publication, 
it was established that the earliest existing poem in the English 
language was written by a native of the Lowlands of Scotland. 
The manuscript was derived from the Aucliinleck Library. 

In 1805 he published “ The Lay of the Last Minstrel, 11 which 
produced to the author the sum of £600. Shortly afterwards he 
obtained the reversion of the honourable and easy office of a prin¬ 
cipal clerk in the court of sessions. The profits were never 
stationary, but seldom below £1,200. a year, which with the 300/. 
which he enjoyed as sheriff, made up a very respectable income, 
without regard to the result of his literary labours. During the 
year 1806, Mr. Scott collected his original compositions in the 
ballad style into a small volume, which he published under the 
title of “ Ballads and Lyrical Pieces. 1 ’ In 1808, he published 
his second poem of magnitude, “ Marmion, 11 with which we are 
informed by himself, he took great pains, and was disposed to take 
still more, if the distresses of a friend had not “ rendered it con¬ 
venient at least, if not necessary, to hasten its publication. 11 The 
publishers of the “ Lay of the Last Minstrel,’ 1 emboldened by the 


BIOGRAPHY. 


803 


success of that poem, willingly offered a thousand pounds for 
“ Marmion.” It brought an immense increase of reputation to 
the author. Its more stately chivalric pictures, its stronger alliance 
to national history, and the broader scale on which it painted 
feudal manners, produced greater admiration than had been excited 
by “The Lay. 1 ” 

In 1811, appeared “The Vision of Don Roderick,” which 
proved the author to be as completely master of the Spensorian 
stanza as he was of the octosyllabic metre ; and in 1813 he pub¬ 
lished “Rockeby,” in which he attempted to invest English 
scenery, and a tale of the Civil War, with the charm which he 
had already thrown over the Scottish Highlands and Borders, and 
their romantic inhabitants. “ Rockeby” met with a comparatively 
unfavourable reception. In 1814, he published “ The Lords of 
the Isles.” Even the name of Bruce, however, could not com¬ 
pensate the want of what had been the most captivating charm of 
his earlier productions—the development of new powers and style 
of poesy. However, “ the sale of fifteen thousand copies,” says 
Scott, “ enabled the author to retreat from the field with the 
honours of wair.” “The Bridal of Triermain,” and “ Harold the 
Dauntless,” were published anonymously; they made a very 
slight impression upon the public. It now became evident to our 
author that his day as a poet was well nigh past. He saw that 
he must “ change his hand,” if he wished his lyre any longer to 
awaken sympathetic chords in the bosom of the public. About 
the close of the last century, he had commenced a tale of chivalry 
in prose, founded upon the legendary story of Thomas the Rhymer, 
but it never went beyond the first chapter. Subsequently, he resolved 
upon a prose romance relating to an age much nearer our own time. 

“ Waverley” was published in 1814, and as the title-page was 
without the name of the author, the work was left to win its way 
in the world without any of the usual recommendations. Its 
progress for some time was slow; but, after the first two or three 
months, its popularity increased in a degree which must have 
satisfied the expectations of the author, had these been far more 
sanguine than he ever entertained. Great anxiety was expressed 
to learn the name of the author, but on this no authentic infor¬ 
mation could be atttained. His original motive for publishing the 
work anonymously, was the consciousness that it was an experiment 
on the public taste, which might very probably fail, and therefore 
there was no occasion to take on himself the personal risk of dis¬ 
comfiture. 

About this period our author removed to Abbotsford, which is 
thus described in his own words:—“ It did not possess the romantic 


804? YOUNG man's companion. 

character of Ashiesteil, my former residence ; but it had a 
stretch of meadow land along the river, and possessed, in the 
phrase of the landscape gardener, considerable capabilities. Above 
all, the land was my own, like Uncle Toby's bowling-green, to 
do what I would with. It had been, though the gratification was 
long postponed, an early wish of mine, to connect myself with 
my mother-earth, and prosecute those experiments by which a 
species of creative power is exercised over the face of nature. I 
can trace, even to childhood, a pleasure derived from Dodsley's 
account of Shenstone's Leasowes ; and envied the poet much 
more for the pleasure of accomplishing the objects detailed in his 
friend's sketch of his grounds, than for the possession of pipe, 
crook, flock, and Phillis to the boot of all. My memory, also, 
tenacious of quaint expressions, still retained a phrase which it had 
gathered from an old almanac of Charles the Second's time (when 
every thing down to almanacs affected to be smart), in which the 
reader, m the month of June, is advised, for the sake of his health, 
to take a walk of a mile or two before breakfast, and, if he can 
possibly so manage, to let his exercise be taken upon his own land. 
With the satisfaction of having attained the fulfilment of an early 
and long-cherished hope, I commenced my improvements, as 
delightful in their progress as those of the child who first makes 
a dress for a new doll. The nakedness of the land was in time 
hidden by woodlands of considerable extent—the smallest possible 
of cottages was progressively expanded into a sort of dream of a 
mansion-house, whimsical in the exterior, but convenient within." 

The nucleus of his property was a small farm, called by the 
plain name of Cartley-Hole, which he purchased from the late Dr. 
Douglas, minister of the neighbouring parish of Galashiels, and 
upon which he conferred the more elegant title of Abbotsford, 
adopted with reference to a ford in the Tweed, just opposite the 
spot, coupled with the adjacent Abbey of Melrose. The situa¬ 
tion was generally considered unfortunate, as it lay on the northern 
slope towards the river, and was bounded close at hand by a pub¬ 
lic road. It was chiefly, nevertheless, to this spot, which he might 
hand down to his descendants, that the world is indebted for a 
series of the most delightful fictions that ever appeared. To 
“ Waverley" succeeded, in 1815, “Guy Manneringin 1816, 
“The Antiquary," and the first series of “The Tales of my 
Landlord," containing the “ Black Dwarf "and “ Old Mortality 
in 1818, “ Rob Roy " and the second series of “ The Tales of 
my Landlord," containing “ The Heart of Mid Lothian ;" and, 
in 1819, the third series of “ Tales of my Landlord," containing 
“ The Bride of Lammermoor, " and “ A Legend of Montrose." 


IHOGRAPHY. 


305 


Our author having early been instructed in the disposition of 
the public to tire of the repeated appearances of even a favourite 
author, had, in the “ Tales of my Landlord,” assumed a new in¬ 
cognito, which, however, was easily seen through. It was impos¬ 
sible, without utterly abandoning the gifts he possessed, to assume 
a style sufficiently discrepant to impose upon the public. The 
same great magician was seen to be at work in both series, and the 
artifice had, therefore, only the effect of giving a slight fillip to the 
sale of the work. Having now drawn upon public curiosity to the 
extent of twelve volumes in each of his two incognitos, he seems 
to have thought it necessary to adopt a third; and accordingly he 
intended “ Ivanhoe,” which appeared in the beginning of 1820, 
to come forth as the first work of a new candidate for public 
favour,—namely, Lawrence Templeton. From this design he 
was diverted by a circumstance of trivial importance, the publica¬ 
tion of a novel in London, pretending to be a fourth series of the 
“Tales of my Landlord.” It was therefore judged necessary 
that “Ivanhoe” should appear as a heritable production of the 
author of “ Waverley.” To it succeeded, in the course of the 
same year, “ The Monastery ” and “ The Abbot.” In the 
beginning of the year 1821, appeared “Kenilworth,” making 
twelve volumes, if not written, at least published, in as many 
months. In 1822 he produced “ The Pirate ” and the “ Fortunes 
of Nigel;” in 1823, “ Peveril of the Peak” and “Quentin 
Durwardin 1824, “St. Ronan’s Well” and “ Redgauntlet;” 
in 1825, “Tales of the Crusaders;” in 1826, “Woodstock;” 
in 1827, “Chronicles of the Canongate,” first series; in 1828, 
“ Chronicles of the Canongate,” second series; in 1829, Anne of 
Geiernstein ;” and in 1831, a fourth series of “Tales of my 
Landlord,” in four volumes, containing two tales, respectively 
entitled “Count Robert of Paris” and “Castle Dangerous.” 
These novels, with those formerly enumerated, make seventy-four 
volumes. 

The great success of the earlier novels had encouraged the 
publishers, Messrs. Archibald Constable and Company, to give 
large sums for those works; and previous to 1824, it was under¬ 
stood that the author had spent from fifty to a hundred thousand 
pounds, thus acquired, upon his house and estate at Abbotsford. 
During the months which his official duties permitted him to pass 
in the country,—that is, the whole of the more genial part of tlie 
year, from March till November, excepting the months of May 
and .Tune,—he kept state, like a wealthy country gentleman, at 
this delightful seat, where he was visited by many distinguished 
persons from England, and from the continent. As he scarcely ever 

R R 


806 


YOUNG MAN^ COMPANION. 


spent any other hours than those between seven and eleven, a. m. 
in composition, he was able to devote the greater part of the 
morning to country exercise, and the superintendence of his 
planting and agricultural operations * while the evenings were, in 
a great measure, devoted to his guests. Almost every day he 
used to ride a considerable distance—sometimes not less than 
twenty miles—on horseback. He also walked a great deal; and, 
lame as he was, would sometimes tire the stoutest of his com¬ 
panions. Among the eminent persons to whom he had been recom¬ 
mended by his genius, and its productions, the late King George 
IV. was one, and not the least warm in his admiration. The 
poet of Marmion had been honoured with many interviews by his 
sovereign, when Prince of Wales and Prince Regent; and his 
Majesty was pleased, in March 1820, to create him a baronet of 
the United Kingdom, being the first to whom he extended that 
honour after his accession to the crown. 

In 1825, Mr. Constable having projected a cheap series of 
original and selected works, engaged Sir Walter to compose a 
“ Life of Buonaparte.” This work was in progress, when, in 
January 1826, Messrs. Constable and Company became bankrupt, 
and Sir Walter found himself called on to meet the demands of 
creditors upon commercial establishments with which his fortunes 
had long been bound up, to the extent of no less a sum than 
£120,000. The blow was endured with a magnanimity worthy 
of the greatest writer of the acre. Until the failure of Messrs. 
Constable and Company, the Waverley secret was kept inviolate, 
though entrusted, as he has himself acknowledged, to a considera¬ 
ble number of persons. The fact of the authorship continued to 
waver between secrecy and divulgement till the 23d of February, 
1827, when Sir Walter presided at the first annual dinner of the 
Edinburgh Theatrical Fund Association, in the Assembly Rooms. 
There Lord Meadowbank, in proposing the health of the chair¬ 
man, spoke to the following effect: “ It is no longer possible, 
consistently with the respect due to my auditors, to use upon this 
subject terms either of mystification, or of obscure or indirect 
allusion. The clouds have been dispelled—the darkness visible 
has been cleared away—and the Great Unknown—the minstrel of 
our native land—the mighty magician who has rolled back the 
current of time, and conjured up before our living senses the men 
and manners of days which have long passed away, stands revealed 
to the hearts and eyes of his affectionate and admiring countrvmen.” 

About the same time, the copyright of all Sir Walter’s past 
novels was brought to the hammer, as part of the bankrupt stock 
of Messrs. Constable and Company. It was bought by Mr. Robert 


BIOGRAPHY. 


307 


Cadell, of the late firm of Archibald Constable and Company, at 
£8,400, for the purpose of republishing the whole of these works 
in a cheap uniform series of volumes, illustrated by notes and 
prefaces, and amended in many parts by the finishing touches of 
the author. Sir Walter or his creditors were to have half the 
profits, in consideration of his literary aid. This was a most 
fortunate design. The new edition began to appear in June, 1829; 
and such was its adaptation to the public convenience, that the sale 
soon reached an average of 23,000 copies. The author was now 
chiefly employed in preparing these narratives for the new impres¬ 
sion ; but he nevertheless found time occasionally to produce 
original woiks. In November 1828, he published the first part 
of a Juvenile history of Scotland, under the title of “ Tales of a 
Grandfather,” being addressed to his grandchild, John Hugh 
Lockhart; whom he typified under the appellation of Hugh 
Littlejohn, Esq. In 1829, appeared the second, and in 1830 
the third and concluding series of this charming book, which fairly 
fulfilled a half-sportive expression that had escaped him many years 
before, in the company of his children,—that “ he would yet make 
the History of Scotland as familiar in the nurseries of England 
as lullaby rhymes.” In 1830, he also contributed a graver 
“ History of Scotland,” in two volumes, to the periodical work 
called “ Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopaedia.” In the same year 
appeared his “ Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft,” as a 
volume of Mr. Murray’s “ Family Library.” 

The profits of these various publications, but especially his share 
of the profits of the new edition of his novels, enabled him to pay 
a dividend of six shillings and eightpence, and again another of 
three shillings in the pound, which, but for the accumulation of 
interest, would have reduced his debts to nearly one half. About the 
same time—that is, in November 1830—Sir Walter retired from 
his office as a principal clerk of the Court of Sessions, retaining a 
large share of the salary appropriated to that office. The govern¬ 
ment offered him a pension sufficient to make up the full amount 
of his usual salary—which, however, he respectfully, but firmly 
declined. His health, from his sixteenth year, had been very 
good, except during the years 1818 and 1819, when he suffered 
under an illness of such severity as to turn his hair quite grey, 
and send him out again to the world apparently ten years older 
than before. During the winter which succeeded his retirement 
from official duty, symptoms of gradual paralysis, a disease 
hereditary in his family, began to be manifested. His contracted 
limb became gradually weaker and more painful, and his tongue 
less readily obeyed the impulse of the will. During the summer 


308 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


of 1831, the symptoms of his disorder became gradually more 
violent; and his physicians recommended a residence in Italy, as 
a means of delaying the approaches of his illness. By the kind 
offices of Captain Basil Hall, liberty was obtained for him to sail 
in his Majesty’s ship the Barham ,, which was then fitting out for 
Malta. In April he proceeded to Rome, which he entered on 
the 21st, and there also he was received with every mark of 
attention and respect. If any thing could have been effectual in 
reillumining the lamp of life, this would have been the ground on 
which the miracle might have been expected to take place. But 
he was himself conscious, amidst the flatteries of his friends, that 
all hopes of this kind were at an end, and he determined upon 
returning with all possible speed to his native country. His 
journey was performed too rapidly for his strength. On his 
arrival in London, he was conveyed to the St. James’s Hotel. 
Jermyn Street, and immediately attended by Sir Henry Halford 
and Dr. Holland; as well as by his son-in-law and daughter. 
All help was now useless. The disease had reached nearly its 
most advanced stage, producing a total insensibility to the presence 
of even his most beloved relations. 

After residing for some weeks in London, the expiring poet 
desired that, if possible, he might be removed to his native land 
—to his own home. As the case was reckoned quite desperate, 
it was resolved to gratify him in his dying wish, even at the hazard 
of accelerating his dissolution by the voyage. He accordingly left 
London on the 7th of July, and arriving at Newhaven on the 
evening of the 9th, was conveyed, with all possible care, to a hotel 
in his native city. After spending two nights and a day in Edin¬ 
burgh, he was removed, on the morning of the 11th, to Abbotsford. 
For two months he lingered in a state of almost total insensibility 
and mental deprivation, sometimes raving frantically, as if he sup¬ 
posed himself to be exercising the functions of a judge, but in 
general quite low and subdued. He was now arrived at that 
melancholy state, when the friends of the patient can form no more 
affectionate wish than that death may step in to claim his own. 
Yet day after day did the remnants of a robust constitution con¬ 
tinue to hold out against the gloomy foe of life ; until, notwith¬ 
standing every effort to the contrary, mortification commenced at 
several parts of the body. This was about twelve days before his 
demise, which at length took place on the 21st of September, 
1832, at half-past one o'clock in the afternoon. Sir Waltei Scott 
left four children—two sons and two daughters. Lady Scott 
died May 15, 1826. In stature Sir Walter Scott was upwards of 
six feet, bulky in the upper part of his body, but never inclining 


BIOGRAPHY 


30.0 


in the least to what is called corpulency. The chest, arms, and 
shoulders, were those of a strong man ; but the frame, in its 
general movements, must have been much enfeebled by his 
lameness, which was such as to give an ungainly, though not 
inactive, appearance to the figure. When walking alone he gene¬ 
rally kept his eyes bent upon the ground, and had a somewhat 
abstracted and even repulsive aspect; but when animated by 
conversation, his countenance became full of pleasant expression. 

LORD BYRON. 

George Gordon Noel, Lord Byron of Rochdale, was the 
grandson of the Honourable John Byron, well known as a naval 
commander under Lord Anson, and the son of John Byron who 
died at Valenciennes, in August 1791. His son, the subject of 
this memoir, was born at London in 1788, and succeeded to the 
title and estates of William, the fifth Lord Byron, at the early 
age of ten years. His lordship’s mother died in 1811. Lord 
Byron spent some of the first years of his life in Aberdeenshire. 
His frame, which was delicate, was invigorated by the keen air of 
that mountainous district; and perhaps we may trace to the wild 
grandeur of Scottish scenery, that lofty poetic temperament, as 
well as that fond attachment to freedom, for which his lordship 
was afterwards so remarkable. In 1798, he was sent to Harrow 
School, of which, and of Dr. Drury, his tutor, he always spoke 
with strong regard. At the age of sixteen, he became a student 
at Trinity College, Cambridge. Here he soon distinguished 
himself, as well by the rapidity and extent of his acquirements, 
as by the originality and vigour of his youthful genius, even then 
too impetuous to be confined within the trammels of a merely 
academic course. While enthusiastically attached to classical 
pursuits, he caught all the inspiration to be derived from the 
poets and historians of Greece and Rome. The living world of 
men and manners was also his study; and he entered deeply into 
the history and political interests of his own and other nations, as 
well as the varied learning of modern times. 

Thus accomplished, at nineteen he took up his -residence at 
Newstead Abbey; and in about a year afterwards, embarked at 
Falmouth for Lisbon, and travelled in Spain, Portugal, and his 
beloved Greece. After an absence of nearly three years, he 
returned to England *, and in a few months the two first cantos of 
“ Cliilde Harold, 11 perhaps the best, as well as the most interesting 
of his lordship’s productions, made their appearance. To this 
poem, in rapid succession, followed the “ Giaour, 11 and the “Bride 


310 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


of Abydos,” both of them Turkish stories ; and while the world 
were yet divided in opinion as to which of the three pieces the 
palm was due, he produced his beautiful poem, “ The Corsair.” 
On the 2d of January, 1815, his lordship married, at Seham, in 
the county of Durham, the only daughter of Sir Ralph Milbank 
Noel, Baronet, and towards the close of the same year, his lady 
presented him with a daughter. Within a few weeks, however, 
after that event, a separation took place, for which various causes 
have been assigned. His lordship, while the public anxiety as 
to the course he would adopt was at its height, suddenly left the 
kingdom, with the resolution never to return. From this period, 
the evil days of the unfortunate and erring bard seem especially 
to have taken their rise. Fie crossed over to France, through 
which country he passed rapidly to Brussels, pausing in his way 
to survey the eventful field of Waterloo. He then proceeded to 
Coblentz, and thence up the Rhine, as far as Basle. After visiting 
some of the most remarkable scenes of Switzerland, he proceeded 
to the north of Italy. He next took up his abode for some time 
at Venice, where he was joined by Mr. Hobhouse, who accom¬ 
panied his lordship during an excursion to Rome, where he 
completed his “ Childe Harold.” Quitting Venice, he visited 
several other Italian cities, and afterwards resided fora considerable 
time in Tuscany. During his lordship’s abode in this province 
the late Mr. Shelley, and Mr. Leigh Hunt, appear to have been 
his occasional companions. The latter gentleman has given some 
graphic representations of Lord Byron’s habits and employments 
at this period, which are not devoid of interest; while they, at 
the same time, excite a deep regret, that this illustrious individual 
should have been so lost to the world, his country, and himself, 
as appears unhappily to have been the fact. Mr. Hunt met Lord 
Byron in Italy under rather novel circumstances. 

“ In a day or two,” says Mr. Hunt, “ I went to see the noble 
bard, who was in what the Italians call villeggiatura, or Monte- 
Nero ; that is to say, enjoying a country-house for the season. 
I there met with a singular adventure, which seemed to make me 
free of Italy and stilettos, before I had well set foot in the 
country. The day was very hot; and when I got there, I found 
the hottest looking house I ever saw. Not content with having 
a red wash over it, the red was the most unseasonable of all reds, 
a salmon colour. Think of this, flaring over the country in a 
hot Italian sun ! But the greatest of all the heats was within. 
Upon seeing Lord Byron, I hardly knew him, he was grown so 
fat; and he was longer in recognising me, I had grown so thin. 
He was dressed in a loose nankeen jacket and white trowsers, his 


BIOGE APIIY. 


3 11 

neckcloth open, and his hair in thin ringlets about his throat; 
altogether presenting a very different aspect from the compact, 
energetic, and curly-headed person, whom I had known in England. 
He took me into an inner-room, and introduced me to a young 
lady in a state of great agitation. Her face was flushed, her eyes 
lit up, and her hair (which she wore in that fashion) looked as if 
it streamed in disorder. This was the daughter of Count Gamba, 
wife of the Cavaliere Guiccioli, since known as Madam, or Countess 
Guiccioli —all the children of persons of rank in Italy bearing the 
title of their parents. The Count Pietro, her brother, came in 
presently, also in a state of agitation, and having his arm in a 
sling. I then learned, that a quarrel having taken place among 
the servants, the young count had interfered, and been stabbed. 
He was very angry ; Madame Guiccioli was more so, and would 
not hear of the charitable comments of Lord Byron, who was for 
making light of the matter. Indeed there was a look in the 
business a little formidable ; for, though the stab was not much, 
the inflictor of it threatened more, and was at that minute keeping 
watch under the portico with the avowed intention of assaulting 
the first person that issued forth. I looked out of a window, and 
met his eye glaring upwards, like a tiger. The fellow had a red 
cap on, like a sansculotte, and a most sinister aspect, dreary and 
meagre, a proper caitiff. Thus it appeared the house was in a 
state of blockade; the nobility and gentry of the interior all kept 
in a state of impossibility by a rascally footman. - ” 

After leaving Tuscany, his lordship sojourned at Genoa, and 
from thence proceeded to Greece, to take that part in the cause 
of freedom, which, if war be under any circumstances justifiable, 
was so honourable to himself, and glorious to his memory. The 
history of this expedition is the noblest portion of Lord Byron's 
biography, while it is, at the same time, strongly illustrative of 
his high and singular character. He appears to have been led 
thither not only by his ardent and honest attachment to the cause 
of liberty, but also by a splendid ambition, and strong love of 
personal distinction. He looked forward with eagerness to the 
first opportunity of distinguishing himself in the field; and it 
was with great difficulty that he was restrained by his physicians 
from taking a part in an expedition against the enemy, at a period 
when his health was in a very precarious state. This fire was, 
however, tempered by the reflection that, in the very responsible 
situation which he filled, prudence was the highest virtue which 
he could display ; and, indeed, throughout the whole of his career 
in Greece, he conducted himself with eminent discretion. Lord 
Byron had, indeed, succeeded in stirring up among the people of 


312 YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

the part of Greece in which he had resided, an almost inconceivable 
enthusiasm. His exertions were incessant in their cause, and the 
gratitude of the people was proportioned to them. His influence 
was not lessened by being employed often to procure humane and 
even kind treatment towards the Turkish captives. Lord Byron 
resembled an ancient Greek in many points. As has been observed, 
“ He reminds us of those better days of Grecian story, when 
valour bowed at the shrine of wisdom, and never appeared more 
engaging than when scattering incense over the tomb of genius. 
Even when a mere boy, his lordship was an enthusiast in the 
cause of Greece. Again and again he braved all the perils of 
Turkish jealousy to linger amidst scenes which his youthful studies 
had taught him to revere: he climbed Parnassus—swam the Hel¬ 
lespont-bathed his burning brow in the waters of Helicon— 
penned sublime verses on the plains of Marathon ; and in a word, 
resigned himself so completely to classic association, that he seemed 
a Greek in spirit, though a Briton in name.” 

The immediate cause of his lordship’s death was inflammatory 
rheumatic fever, supervening on a previous attack of illness, brought 
on by perturbation of mind, and from which he had partially re¬ 
covered. Living, however, very low, and exposing himself to cold 
and wet, symptoms of inflammation ensued, and he became seriously 
indisposed. Refusing to be bled, the disorder made a rapid 
progress, and in ten days he was no more. His lordship’s decease 
took place at Missolonghi, April 19th, 1824. Thus terminated 
the earthly career of a great spirit, while engaged in supporting 
by his person and influence one of the noblest causes which the 
records of history ever exhibited to the world. He threw his 
whole heart into the cause, and sealed his sincerity by his death, 
on the scene of action. The remains of this illustrious nobleman 
were conveyed to England, and deposited in the church of Hucknal 
Forcard, in Nottinghamshire, about four miles from Newstead 
Abbey, where an elegant Grecian tablet of white marble, is erected 
to his memory. It bears the following inscription :— 

u In the vault beneath, where many of the ancestors of his 
mother are buried, lie the remains of George Gordon Noel Byron, 
Lord Byron of Rochdale, in the county of Lancaster, the author 
of 4 Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage.’ He was born in London, on the 
22d of January, 1788; he died at Missolonghi, in Western 
Greece, on the 19th of April, 1824, engaged in the glorious 
attempt to restore that country to her ancient freedom and renown. 
His sister, the Honourable Augusta Maria Leigh, placed this 
tablet to his memory.” 

Respecting the poetical works of this singular and accomplished 


BIOGRAPHY. 


313 


individual, it is unnecessary to enter into any extended remarks. 
They have been too long before the public to need recapitulation 
here. While the literature of his country endures, they will 
remain as an imperishable monument to the transcendent genius 
of their highly gifted author. The Christian moralist will, however, 
temper his admiration with regret, while he beholds powers so 
mighty too often prostituted to the production of works of a 
dangerous, not to say a vicious tendency. In the “Don Juan, 11 
especially, the latest and worst effusion of his lordship’s pen, this 
fault is glaringly conspicuous. This powerful and eccentric 
production displays, if we mistake not, the miserable tendency 
of sceptical principles, and uncontrolled passions, to wither and 
blast the finest emotions of the human soul. And who does not 
lament that such a soul as Lord Byron’s should prefer to wander 
amidst the shadows of its own dark and dreary, though, it may be, 
sometimes sublime speculations, rather than to walk in the cheerful 
light, and under the benign influence of Christianity ? 

Section IV.—Eminent Christians, Philanthropists, 

Divines, etc. 

HOWARD. 

John Howard, well known as the great philanthropist of his 
age, was the son of a tradesman, and was born at Enfield about 
the year 1727- His father died while he was young, and by his 
will directed that his son should not be considered of age till he 
was five and twenty. His constitution was originally very weak, 
and his health having been impaired by the duties of his appren¬ 
ticeship, he did not serve his time out, but bought his indentures, 
and indulged his curiosity in a tour to France and Italy. Upon 
his return he took lodgings at Stoke Newington, Middlesex. 
Here he was nursed with so much care and attention by the lady 
at whose house he lodged, that he resolved to marry her, out of 
gratitude for her kindness. This lady was many years older than 
himself, and never enjoyed good health. She died in November, 
1755. In the year 1756, Mr. Howard embarked in a Lisbon 
packet, in order to make a tour to Portugal, but the vessel was 
taken by a French privateer, and he endured for some time all 
the hardships of a prisoner of war in France. On his return to 
England he fixed his residence at Cardington in Bedfordshire, and 
employed his time and property in forming and executing plans 
for the relief of poverty and distress. Here he married the eldest 
daughter of Edward Leeds, Esq. of Croxton, in Cambridgeshire. 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


S] 4 

In this connexion he spent the most tranquil years of his life, till 
his enjoyments were intercepted by the death of his wife, soon after 
the birth of her only son. While he lived in this retirement, his 
neat but humble mansion was ever hospitable to a few select 
friends, but was never the scene of riot or luxurious banqueting. 
Though polite to all, he neither sought nor admitted the company 
of the profligate, however distinguished by rank or fortune. His 
charity was not more commendable for its extent than for the 
manner in which it was exercised. 

But the sphere in which he had hitherto moved was too narrow 
for his enlarged mind. Being named in 1773 to the office of 
high sheriff of Bedfordshire, this office brought the distress of 
prisoners more immediately under his notice. A sense of duty 
induced him personally to visit the county jail, where he observed 
abuses and scenes of calamity, of which he had before no con¬ 
ception ; and he soon exerted himself to effect a reform. He 
visited the principal prisons in England, and was examined in the 
house of commons in March 1774 on this subject, when he had 
the honour of their thanks. Being desirous before he should 
publish his account of English prisons, to suggest remedies, as 
well as point out defects, he resolved to examine personally the 
practice of the continental kingdoms. For this purpose he 
travelled into France, Flanders, Holland, Germany, and Switzer¬ 
land ; and afterwards through the Prussian and Austrian domi¬ 
nions. He visited also the capitals of Denmark, Sweden, 
Russia, and Poland, and some cities in Portugal and Spain. 
In all these expensive and hazardous journeys, he denied himself 
the usual gratifications of travellers, and declined the honours which 
were offered him by persons of the first distinction, applying himself 
solely to the pursuit of his grand object. On his return in 1777, 
he published the information he had collected with so much care 
and expense, in a work which he dedicated to the house of 
commons. The house having zealously entered upon the business 
of regulating places of confinement, Mr. Howard at their request 
began a new tour in 1778. He travelled through the Prussian 
and Austrian dominions, and the free cities of Germany. He 
extended his tour also through Italy, and revisited some" of the 
countries he had before seen. During the spring and summer of 
the year 1779, he made another complete tour of England and 
Wales, besides taking a journey through Scotland and Ireland. 
The observations he made in this tour were published in an 
appendix to his work, which contains also some remarks respecting 
the management of prisoners of war, and the hulks on the Thames. 

Witli the design of acquiring some further knowledge on the 


UJ0G11APHY. 


315 


subject, lie revisited Holland, and some German cities, in 1780. 
lie visited also the capitals of Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and 
Poland, and in 1783 some cities in Portugal and Spain, and 
returned again through France, Flanders, and Holland. The 
substance of all his travels was afterwards thrown into one narrative, 
which was published in 1784. He also published a curious 
account of the Bastile, in 8vo. With a view to discover the best 
means of preventing infection, particularly with respect to the 
plague, he determined to visit the principal lazarettoes in France 
and Italy. Not gaining all the satisfaction here which he wished, 
he proceeded to Smyrna and Constantinople. Determined to 
obtain the fullest information of the mode of performing quarantine, 
he returned to Smyrna, where the plague then was, for the purpose 
of going to Venice in a vessel with a foul bill of health. In the 
course of his voyage, the ship in which he was a passenger, was 
attacked by a corsair from Tunis, which was beaten off after a 
smart skirmish. After leaving his quarters in the lazaretto of 
Venice, he proceeded, at the close of the year 1786, to Vienna, 
where he had a private conference with the emperor Joseph II. 
and, returning through Germany and Holland, arrived safe in 
England in the beginning of the year 1787. 

On his return to his home, he was met by the melancholy 
intelligence, that his only son had fallen into a state of incurable 
insanity, a shock which required all his fortitude, aided by the 
consolations of Christianity, to sustain. In the year 1787 and 
1788 he made several visits to the prisons of Scotland and Ireland. 
In the latter place he proposed a new and important object, that 
of inspecting the Protestant Charter Schools, in some of which he 
had before observed shameful abuses, which he had reported to a 
committee of the Irish house of commons. Upon his return, 
having again inspected the prisons in England, and the hulks on 
the Thames, he published the result of his last laborious investi¬ 
gations, in “ An Account of the Principal Lazarettoes in Europe, 
with various papers relative to the Plague, together with 
further Observations on some Foreign Prisons and Hospitals, and 
additional Remarks on the present State of those in Great Britain 
and Ireland,” with a number of curious plates. The^work likewise 
contained observations on penitentiary houses, which had been 
encouraged by act of parliament. Not satisfied with what he 
fiad already done, he concludes his account of lazarettoes with 
announcing his intention again to quit his country for the purpose 
of revisiting Russia, Turkey, and some other countries, and ex¬ 
tending his tour in the east. “ I am not insensible,” says he, “of 
the dangers that must attend such a journey. Trusting, however, 


316 


YOUNG man’s COMPANION. 

in tlie protection of that kind Providence which has hitherto 
preserved me, I calmly and cheerfully commit myself to the 
disposal of unerring wisdom.” 

In pursuance of this design he set out in the summer of 1789 
on this hazardous enterprise. He had resolved to undertake this 
journey without an attendant; but a faithful servant obtained 
leave to accompany him. Arriving in Holland in the beginning 
of July 1789, he proceeded through the north of Germany, 
Prussia, Courland, and Livonia, to Petersburgh; thence to 
Moscow, and finally to the extremity of European Russia, on 
the shores of the Black Sea, where he fell a victim to one of those 
infectious diseases, the ravages of which he was exerting every 
effort to restrain. While residing at Cherson, a new settlement 
made by the late empress of Russia on the mouth of the Dnieper, 
he was entreated to visit a lady about twenty-five miles from thence, 
who was dangerously ill. From this lady he was supposed to 
have received the contagious disorder which proved fatal to him. 
He was buried near the village of Dauphiny, about five versts 
from Cherson, by the road to Nicholaef, in the spot he had himself 
chosen ; and his friend, Admiral Brestman, read the English 
burial service, according to his desire. A monument was after¬ 
wards erected over him: this, instead of the sun-dial he had re¬ 
quested, consisted of a brick pyramid, or obelisk, surrounded by 
stone posts with chains. 

In his person Mr. Howard was rather below the middle stature 
He had prominent features, a penetrating eye, and uncommon 
vivacity of manner. Though naturally of a tender constitution, 
he accustomed himself to so strict a regimen, both with respect 
to food and sleep, that he acquired the power of sustaining the 
greatest hardships without injury. In his public character he 
exceeded perhaps all others in that unceasing energy and perseve¬ 
rance with which he pursued his benevolent purposes ; and his 
exertions have been celebrated by the sublimest strains of elo¬ 
quence and poetry. As an instance of the former, we insert the 
following panegyric on Howard, by the celebrated Edmund Burke. 

“ I cannot name this gentleman without remarking that his 
labours and writings have done much to open the eyes and hearts 
of mankind. He has visited all Europe, not to survey the 
sumptuousness of palaces, or the stateliness of temples; not to 
make accurate measurements of the remains of ancient grandeur, 
or to form a scale of the curiosity of modern art; not to collect 
models, or collate manuscripts; but to dive into the depths of 
dungeons; to plunge into the infections of hospitals; to survey 
the mansions of sorrow and pain; to take the gauge and dimensions 


biography. 


317 


of misery, depression, and contempt; to remember the forgotten ; 
to attend to the neglected; to visit the forsaken; to compare and 
collate the distresses of all men, in all countries. His plan is 
original, and it is as full of genius as it is of humanity. It is a 
voyage of discovery; a circumnavigation of charity. Already the 
benefit of his labours is felt more or less in every country; I 
hope he will participate his final reward, by seeing all its effects 
fully realized in his own. He will receive, not by retail, but by 
gross, the reward of those who visit the prisoner; and he has so 
forestalled and monopolized this branch of charity, that there will be, 
I trust, little room to merit by such acts of benevolence hereafter. 1 ’ 

WILBERFORCE 

William Wilberforce, Esq. the well-known and zealous advocate 
for the abolition of the slave-trade, was the son of Robert Wilber¬ 
force, Esq. a merchant of Hull, and grandson of William 
Wilberforce, Esq. who twice served the office of mayor of that 
town. Mr. Wilberforce was born August 24, 1759, at Hull. 
He was educated at the free school of Pocklington, and afterwards 
at St.John’s College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. 1781, 
M.A. 1788. He was a contemporary, and formed an intimate 
friendship with William Pitt, and Dr. Isaac Milner, afterwards 
dean of Carlisle, with both whom, on quitting the university, he 
made a tour on the continent. Having become of age only a few 
weeks before the general election of 1780, he was almost unani¬ 
mously returned as one of the representatives of his native town ; 
and at the election of 1784, he was chosen for the county of York. 

It was at the particular solicitation of Mr. Clarkson that Mr. Wil¬ 
berforce was first induced to interest himself on the subject of 
slavery. At their first interview, he appeared to doubt the justice 
of some of the charges contained in Clarkson’s book on the slave- 
trade ; but, after further investigation, he satisfied himself of their 
correctness, and at a dinner given by Rennet Langton, he consented 
to belong to a society which had been established with a view of 
carrying the benevolent object of Clarkson into effect. Having 
also undertaken to bring the matter before the House of Commons, 
hegave notice of that intention soon after the meeting of Parliament, 
in 1787. In 1788, he was for some time very ill, and in conse¬ 
quence of petitions on the subject from all parts of the country, 
Mr. Pitt brought forward a motion in his name, hoping that, by 
the next session Mr. Wilberforce would himself be able to take the 
conduct of it. The business was not, however, proceeded with 
until nearlv twelve months afterwards, when Mr. Wilbcrforce’s 


318 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


first motion respecting the trade in slaves was carried without a 
division; in the next, however, he was less successful, for, in 1791, 
his motion to bring in a bill to prevent the further importation of 
African Negroes into the British colonies was lost by a majority 
of 75. 

In 1792, having redoubled his efforts, and been greatly assisted 
in them by Mr. Fox and Mr. Pitt, they were crowned with success, 
and the question for a gradual abolition of the trade was carried, 
only 85 having voted against it. In 1807, an act for the total 
abolition of the trade by British Merchants completed all that the 
legislature could accomplish on that branch of the question. 

In 1797, Mr. Wilberforce published “ An Apology for the Chris¬ 
tian Sabbath and also a work entitled “ A Practical View of the 
prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the higher 
and middle classes of this Country, contrasted with real Chris¬ 
tianity,” which had a very extensive circulation; having passed 
into three editions within twelve months of its publication, and 
twelve or fifteen since. It advocated sentiments in religion highly 
Calvinistic, and which have been deemed by some persons some¬ 
what enthusiastic. It was warmly attacked by the Rev. Gilbert 
Wakefield, in a “Letter ” addressed to the author; by the Rev. 
Thomas Belsham, in a “ Review ” by Dr. Cogan, in his “ Letters 
to William Wilberforce, Esq. on the Doctrine of Hereditary De¬ 
pravity, by a Layman and by others. 

Mr. Wilberforce was re-elected without opposition for the county 
of York, at the elections of 1790, 1796, 1802, and 1806; but at 
the election of 1807, he was in danger, from the competition 
between the two great families of Fitzwilliam and Lascelles, who 
were each supposed to have spent upwards of 100,000 upon the 
contest. Mr. Wilberforce, however, was supported by a public 
subscription collected throughout the country, and was again suc¬ 
cessful. It is said that he owed his success to the adroit manage¬ 
ment of his friends, who contrived to get him the second votes of 
some thousands of the supporters of Mr. Lascelles, on the under¬ 
standing (an understanding which was not observed) that the second 
votes which Mr. Wilberforce’s committee could influence, should 
be given to Mr. Lascelles. Mr. Wilberforce published, at this 
period, two pamphlets addressed to the freeholders of York¬ 
shire ; one on the Abolition of the Slave-Trade; and the other 
on the circumstances of the election. 

In 1812, Mr. Wilberforce retired from the representation of 
Yorkshire, and was elected for Bramber, for which borough he 
also sat in the two subsequent parliaments, until he finally retired 


BIOGRAPHY. 


319 


from liis senatorial duties, by accepting the Chiltern-Hundreds, in 
1825. He had then sat in parliament for forty-five years. 

Mr. Wilberforce possessed, in perfection, two essential attributes 
of popular declamation—a choice flow of pure and glowing English, 
and a fine modulation of a sweet and powerful voice. The copi¬ 
ousness of expression which a classical education conferred, and the 
ardent zeal which belonged to his religion and his temper, rendered 
him earnest, vehement, affecting, where a philosopher would be in¬ 
different and frigid. That he was often unconsciously led into 
exaggeration, and unwittingly overstepped the bounds of truth— 
that he sometimes allowed his feelings to predominate over his 
reason, and attributed unworthy motives to those whose honour 
was as spotless as his own, cannot be denied; but, on the 
other hand, he devoted all his energies to the cause of hu¬ 
manity and to the promotion of those objects, which, in his view, 
were likely to conduce to the moral improvement of mankind. In 
1823, Mr. Wilberforce published an “Appeal to the Religion, 
.1 ustice, and Humanity of the Inhabitants of the British Empire, in 
behalf of the Negro Slaves in the West Indies he was the writer 
of “An Introductory Essay to Witherspoon’s Treatiseson Justifica¬ 
tion and Regeneration,” in a series of Christian Authors, published 
at Glasgow; and he also made many communications to the “ Chris¬ 
tian Observer.” Mr. Wilberforce married, at Walcot Church, near 
Bath, May 30, 1797, Barbara, eldest daughter of Isaac Spooner, 
Esq. of Elmdon House in Warwickshire, and a merchant in Bir¬ 
mingham, and niece, by her mother, to the first Lord Calthorpe. 
With this lady he received a handsome fortune. From the ex¬ 
penses of his Yorkshire elections, however, and other circumstances, 
this property was considerably diminished before his death, which 
took place July 29, 1833. 

It had been intended, in conformity with the wish of the deceased, 
to conduct his funeral with the utmost privacy, and to inter his re¬ 
mains in Newington church-yard ; but a very considerable number 
of the most distinguished members of the house of lords and 
commons, anxious to pay a last tribute of respect to the memory of a 
man who, through along series of years, had been so honourably dis¬ 
tinguished in the British senate, prevailed on his sons and immediate 
friends to allow the funeral to be a public one, and the place of inter¬ 
ment to be Westminster Abbey. The funeral took place on the 3d 
of August, at about half-past twelve o’clock? The order of the pro¬ 
cession having been arranged, the coffin, containing the remains of 
the deceased, was placed in the hearse, and the procession moved 
slowly from Cadogan-place towards Westminster Abbey, forming 
a very lengthened train, accompanied by immense crowds of people. 


320 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


who flanked it, in moving columns, on either side ; and at a little 
after one o’clock, the signal, that it was approaching the abbey, 
was given by Mr. Lee, the high constable of Westminster, to the 
peers and commoners, who had assembled in their respective 
houses of parliament, for the purpose of following the body in 
procession through the aisles of the abbey. The peers, amounting 
to a considerable number, all dressed in deep black, having put on 
scarves and hat-bands, proceeded from the Jerusalem chamber of 
the house of lords into the abbey, entering at Poet’s corner, while 
the members of the house of commons, numbering between 100 
and 200, in full mourning, proceeded two abreast to the west door 
of the abbey, by which they entered. 

The coffin, at this period, having arrived at the western door, 
was removed from the hearse, and placed on the shoulders of six 
men; the pall of rich black velvet, with a deep border of white 
satin, having been thrown over it. The following distinguished 
individuals supported the pall;—the lord chancellor, speaker of 
the house of commons, Lord Bexley, and the marquis of West¬ 
minster, on the one side; the Right Honourable Charles Grant, 
Sir Robert Inglis, Mr. W. Smith, and his Royal Highness the 
duke of Gloucester, on the other. His Royal Highness was the 
last on the extreme right, it being a rule, according to the etiquette 
of such occasions, for royalty to be the last amongst the pall¬ 
bearers; the lord chancellor was the first on the extreme left. 
The king’s boys in their uniforms, and the Westminster school¬ 
boys in their white surplices, two and tw T o abreast, formed the van 
of the procession. The abbey choristers, robed in their robes 
of white and scarlet, together with the choristers of St. Paul’s 
Cathedral, Whitehall Chapel, and the various other important 
places of public worship throughout the metropolis, next followed ; 
then followed the peers, at the head of whom was his Royal High¬ 
ness the duke of Sussex and his grace the duke of Wellington, 
both in deep black, and exhibiting a star on the left breast; next 
in order were the archbishop of Canterbury, the bishop of Chi¬ 
chester, and various other bishops; after them followed the dean 
and chapter of Westminster; then the Rev. Dr. Holcombe, ac¬ 
companied by the Rev. Dr. Deakins ; next to them the coffin and 
distinguished pall-bearers ; and, lastly, the members of the house 
of commons, two and two abreast. The choristers, as the procession 
moved towards the north transept of the abbey, where the grave 
was formed, close to the tombs of Canning, Fox, and Pitt, chanted 
the funeral dirge composed by Croft. Having arrived at the grave 
the coffin was lowered into it; and the funeral service was 
most impressively read by the Rev. Dr. Holcombe, the choristers, 


BIOGRAPHY. 


/ 


QOI 

1 


Kings boys, &c., chaunting in occasionally, with the accompa¬ 
niment of the organ. During this most solemn part of the service 
their Royal Highnesses the dukes of Sussex and Gloucester, the 
duke ot Wellington, the archbishop of Canterbury, the bishop of 
Chester, and various other bishops, the lord chancellor, the 
speaker of the house of commons, and the other pall-bearers, the 
marquis of Lansdowne, Lord Roslyn, Lord Althorp, Lord 
Auckland, &c. formed a circle around the grave. The inscription 
on the coffin was, 

“ William Wilberforce, Esq. 

Born 24th of August, 1759. 

Died 29th of July, 1833.” 

Mr. Wilberforce was in person below the middle size, of a spare 
habit, and of rather a weakly constitution ; nor were his great 
oratorical exertions unattended by subsequent suffering. His bust 
has been lately modelled by Mr. Joseph, the sculptor, and is a very 
striking and characteristic resemblance. Not only is the benevolent 
character of the original vividly expressed, but the peculiar look of 
the eyes, denoting that quick perception of the ludicrous which 
marked his character. 


BISHOP HEBER. 

Reginald Heber, a late distinguished prelate, was the son of the 
Rev. Reginald Heber, formerly of Merton, in Yorkshire, and was 
born April 21, 1783, at Malpas, in Cheshire, a living held at that 
time by his father. From the grammar-school of Whitchurch, 
where he received the rudiments of his classical education, he was 
sent to Dr. Bristowe, a gentleman who took pupils near town; and 
in the year 1800, was admitted of Brazennose College, Oxford. 
He knew very little of the art of writing Latin verses ; vet as 
this was the only mode of distinguishing himself, in his first year 
at college, he applied his mind to Latin hexameters, and, on his 
first attempt, in 1802, obtained the university prize; the subject 
was Carmen Seculare. He subsequently directed his attention to 
English poetry, which he composed at first with great difficulty. 
In 1803, the subject given for English verse was Palestine. Upon 
this theme Mr. Heber wrote, and with signal success. He then 
applied himself to the higher classics and to mathematics, in which 
he made considerable progress. In 1805, he took his degree of 
B. A. and immediately after tried his powers in English compo¬ 
sition, andgained the prize for the English essay ; the subject, “The 
Sense of Honour.” From Brazennose college he was elected to a 
fellowship at All-Souls, and soon after went abroad. He travelled 

T T 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


V22 

through Germany, Russia, and the Crimea, in company with Dr. 
Clarke ; whose “ Travels” in the latter countries were enriched with 
notes extracted from Mr. Heber’s MS. journal. In the preface 
to his first volume the learned and justly renowned traveller ac¬ 
knowledges his obligations to Mr. Heber. Besides his habitual ac¬ 
curacy, his zealous attention to which appears in every statement, 
Dr. Clarke mentions the statistical information, which stamps a pe¬ 
culiar value on his observations, and has enriched the volume by com¬ 
munications the author himself was incompetent to supply; espe* 
cially concerning the state of peasants in Russia. Dr. Clarke adds 
a further acknowledgment, for some beautiful drawings engraved 
in that volume. 

In 1808, Mr. Heber took his degree of A.M. at Oxford. 
The next year appeared from the press his poem, “Europe, Lines 
on the Present War.” This poem professes to be a review of the 
general politics of Europe, with a wish to avoid, as much as pos¬ 
sible, subjects purely English. The subject which predominates 
is the glorious struggle which then drew the attention and sympathy 
of all mankind to Spain. Having returned to England, and being 
presented to the family living of Hodnet, he married Amelia, 
daughter of Dr. Shipley, the late dean of St. Asaph, and thence¬ 
forward willingly devoted himself to the enjoyment of those 
domestic charities, which no one was better fitted to promote, 
and to the discharge of those unobtrusive duties which fill up 
the life of a country clergyman. Few days passed in which he 
did not spend some time in intercourse with his people; suffering 
neither the aged to be deprived of the consolations of religion through 
their inability to reach church by reason of their years; nor the 
sick man to be long on his bed, without one to kneel by his side; 
nor the poor to languish in want, without his discovering and 
giving them help ; nor neighbours to be at strife, without sup¬ 
plying to them a most effectual peace-maker. Active, however, 
as was the life of Mr. Heber, it was still a studious life. At his 
parsonage he applied his vigorous intellect to the study of divinity, 
and in 1815 preached the Bampton lectures. The subject selected 
by him was “ The Personality and Office of the Christian Com¬ 
forter asserted and explained, in a course of sermons on John 
xvi. 7.” About this time he composed many articles fora Diction¬ 
ary of the Bible; after which, with the exception of some critical 
essays, both theological and literary, not unknown to the public, 
though without a name, and an admirable ordination sermon, 
delivered before the late bishop of Chester, and at his request 
committed to the press, he did not appear as an author till 1822. 
Hi? life of Jeremy Taylor, and a review of his writings, then 


UTOGRAPHY. 


323 

inade known to the world how well the interval had been spent 
in maturing his great knowledge by reflection, and chastening it by 
a sound judgment and more finished taste. In 1822, Mr. Heber 
was elected by the benchers of Lincoln’s Inn, preacher to their 
society, an office which had been filled by Warburton, Hurd, and 
numerous dignitaries of the church. His election to this office, 
independently of the acknowledgment it paid to his talents and 
character, was valuable to him, as securing his more frequent access 
to the metropolis 

It was not long before an occasion of employing him in a more 
extensive field of usefulness occurred; and on the death of Dr. 
Middleton, the bishopric of Calcutta was offered to Mr. Heber. 
He deliberated long and anxiously; he even refused the appoint¬ 
ment ; he recalled his refusal; bade farewell to a parish where he 
had toiled for fifteen years; and on the 16th of June, 1823, 
embarked for the land which was to be his grave. On the 10th 
of October following, the bishop, with Mrs. Heber and their 
family, landed at Calcutta. On the 4th of November at Dum 
Dum, the military station of the East India Company’s artillery, 
a few miles from Calcutta, his lordship consecrated the new church, 
the foundation of which had been laid by his predecessor, Bishop 
Middleton, under the name of St. Stephen. On Ascension day, 

1824, Bishop Heber held his primary visitation in the cathedral 
at Calcutta. 

During the remainder of the year 1821, the whole of the year 

1825, and part of 1826, Bishop Heber was engaged in travelling 
over the whole extent of his immense diocese. An account of his 
travels appeared in his Narrative, published in 1828. In this 
work, the superior cast of the author’s mind, and the benevolence 
of his heart, are everywhere apparent. According to a popular 
periodical work, his Narrative forms a monument of talent, suffi¬ 
cient, singly and alone, to establish its author in a very high rank 
of English literature. (i It is,” says the writer, “ one of the most 
delightful books in the language ; and will, we cannot doubt, 
command popularity as extensive and as lasting as any book of 
travels that has been printed in our time. Certainly, no work of 
its class that has appeared since Dr. Clarke’s can be compared to 
it for variety of interesting matter; still less for elegance of exe¬ 
cution. The style, throughout easy, graceful, and nervous, carries 
with it a charm of freshness and originality, not surpassed in any 
personal memoirs with which we are acquainted. By the apparent 
industry with which Bishop Heber kept his journal, the activity 
of his mind seems to have been excited, rather than diminished, 
by a** enervating and oppressive climate. Uniting with a constant 


324 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


reference to tlie primary object of his tour, and the business of 
his sacred office, the enthusiasm of the traveller, he extended his 
journey in all directions ; exploring, in succession, the labyrinths 
of the Gangetic Delta, the fertile plains of Bengal and Bahar, 
the forests of Kumaoon, the roots of the mighty Himalaya, and 
the scorching sands.of Gujerat. 11 From June to the end of the 
year 1824, the bishop was engaged in visiting the several European 
stations of Bengal, and the upper provinces of Hindoostan. In 
January 1825, he was at Acra, and went from thence to Jeypoor 
and Neemuch, to the stations under the Bombay government, 
including Poonah, Kaira, Baroda, Baroach, Surat, and Gujerat, 
consecrating churches at these several places. In May 1825, 
the bishop held his episcopal visitation at Bombay, where he 
preached on board the Honourable Company’s ship Farquharson. 
In the course of this progress he laid the foundation of two 
central schools. He also visited the Deccan, Ceylon, and Madras, 
on his return to Bengal; performing at each station the duties of 
an apostolic bishop. During this period he appears to have 
zealously promoted the religious objects of the British and 
Foreign Bible Society. In their report for 1825, they gratefully 
acknowledged that 44 the name of Dr. Heber, bishop of Calcutta, 
as an accession to the cause, is in every respect most valuable. 
With the aid of his lordship’s counsel and influence, the objects 
of the society must be essentially promoted ; its character also 
will be better appreciated; and it will commend itself more and 
more to the community. -11 The bishop preached at Combaconum 
on Good Friday, the 24th of March, 1826, and arrived the next 
day at Tanjore, where he preached on Easter Sunday. The fol¬ 
lowing day he held a confirmation at the latter place; and in the 
evening addressed the assembled missionaries. Having paid a 
visit of ceremony to the rajah of Tanjore, and inspected the 
schools, he went to Trichinopoly. Flere, on Sunday, April 2, 
he again preached and again confirmed; a rite which he repeated 
early the next morning in the Fort church. 

From the view of a life so full of Christian activity and dis¬ 
interested benevolence, it is with deep regret we now advert to 
the subject of his premature dissolution. On his return from 
the Fort church he proceeded to bathe before breakfast, as he 
had done the two preceding days. His servant accompanied 
him to the bath, which was built as a separate bungalow ; it 
was large enough for a person to swim about in it, and was filled 
above the height of a grown person. The servant waited outside 
the door. First he heard the bishop moving about in the water, 
as if swimming. This lasted only about four minutes ; then all was 


BIOGRAPHY. 


S25 


suddenly still. The servant thought his master was dressing; but 
when this pause had lasted'nearly half an hour, he became alarmed, 
and knocked at the door. No answer having been returned, he at 
last opened it, and found the bishop at the bottom of the bath, 
without any signs of life. He was immediately taken out of the 
water, and medical assistance applied, but every effort proved 
ineffectual. His body was opened ; and it was the opinion of 
the surgeons that he died of apoplexy. He was on the day 
following entombed in St. John’s church, on the plain at the right 
side of the altar. The bishop, although perfectly well on the 
preceding days, and, as it appeared, on the very day the event 
took place, had yet given his chaplain to understand some time 
before, that he thought his life would be of no long duration, and 
that his demise would be sudden. 

The character of Bishop Heber is too well known, and too 
much endeared to a most extensive circle, to need the language 
of panegyric. To a superior and highly cultivated mind he added 
all the qualities of heart that can render the man an object of 
love and veneration. “ As a traveller, he appears to have carried 
to India habits and accomplishments, and to have traversed her 
territories under circumstances, more advantageous than any other 
individual, the results of whose personal observations have as yet 
been made public. He possessed the eye of a painter, and the 
pen of a poet; a mind richly stored with the literature of Europe, 
both ancient and modern ; great natural shrewdness and sagacity; 
and a temper as amiable and candid as ever accompanied and 
adorned the energies of a fine genius. He had travelled exten¬ 
sively in his early life, and acquired, in the provinces of Russia 
and Turkey especially, a stock of practical knowledge, that could 
not fail to be of the highest value to him in his Indian peregri¬ 
nations. His views were, on all important subjects, those of 
one who had seen and read much, and thought more—liberal, 
expansive, worthy of a philosopher and a statesman. In the 
maturity of manhood he retained for literature and science the 
ardent zeal of his honoured youth. The cold lesson, ‘nil admirari,’ 
had never been able to take hold on his generous spirit. Religion 
was the presiding influence; but his religion graced, as well as 
heightened, his admirable faculties ; it employed and ennobled 
them all.” 


ROBERT HALL. 

The Rev. Robert Hall, one of the most distinguished preachers 
of his day, and the author of several valuable works, was son of 
the Rev. Robert Hall, a dissenting minister, and was born at 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION 


Arnesbv, in Leicestershire, in 1764. The genius by which he 
was afterwards so much distinguished, Was displayed in very early 
life ; as at the age of nine years he perused and comprehended 
President Edwards’s Treatise on the Will and the Affections. 
At this period he was placed with Mr. Ryland of Northampton, 
whence he was removed to the Bristol Institution for the education 
of the young men destined for the Particular Baptist ministry. 
This establishment was then under the direction of Dr. Caleb 
Evans ; and his regard was soon directed to Robert Hall, whose 
diligence and talent were not long unknown at Bristol. At the 
age of seventeen, Mr. Hall removed to King’s College, Aberdeen ; 
where he soon became eminent for his application to study, and 
the facility with which he acquired academical distinctions. Here 
he became acquainted with Sir James Mackintosh, and several 
other gentlemen afterwards noted for their talents. At the age of 
twenty he commenced preaching, and having taken his degree of 
A. M., he became assistant to his previous instructor, Dr. Evans. 

It has, however, been the fate of most men of genius to 
encounter more evils of one sort or other than seem generally to 
overtake ordinary characters. Mr. Hall, at this period, was afflicted 
with a temporary aberration of reason. He was therefore removed 
from Bristol to Leicestershire; but in the year 1791, his health 
was sufficiently restored to enable him to succeed the celebrated 
George Robinson in the ministry of a Baptist congregation at 
Cambridge. His predecessor had gradually declined into Uni- 
tarianism ; but the energy of Mr. Hall soon effected a restoration 
in the affairs of the society, and finally re-established the pro¬ 
sperity of the church over which he presided. It was here that 
the first public literary effort of Mr. Hall was produced. The 
French revolution had, with the spirit of liberty, diffused the 
poison of infidelity ; and the alarm which was created caused 
many pious but mistaken people to advocate the doctrine 
of passive obedience as a Christian duty. Mr. Hall opposed 
what he conceived to be a dangerous error; and in reply to a 
pamphlet put forth by the Rev. J. Clayton, late minister of the 
Weigh-House, he demonstrated that Christianity was compatible 
with the highest degree of civil freedom. 

The success of his first attempt to serve the cause of liberty 
induced him shortly after to publish his “Vindication of the 
Freedom of the Press,” in which he evinced that whatever abuses 
may be contingent upon the operations of such an unrestricted 
engine, they are certain to be counteracted by the removal ot 
degrading ignorance, which could never exist where knowledge 
was not freely circulated. The popularity of his work may be 


BIOGRAPHY. 


327 


estimated from the fact, that it very soon ran through six 
editions. 

In 1803, Mr. Hall was again afflicted, and obliged to suspend 
his ministerial duties ; another minister was appointed to his 
charge in Cambridge; and when he unexpectedly recovered, he 
found his office was filled He was soon, however, invited to 
preside over a church in Leicester, the ministerial duties of which 
lie discharged for upwards of twenty years, with the approbation 
and esteem of all who knew him. In 1825, the death of Dr. 
Ryland occasioned a vacancy in the presidentship of the Bristol 
Academy, and the pastorship of Broadmead Chapel, to which 
Mr. Hall was earnestly invited. After some hesitation, he 
removed to Bristol in 1826, having accepted the charge of the 
church at Broadmead, though he declined the presidency of the 
college. He continued to discharge his various duties as pastor 
of this church till his mortal career terminated. On the 10th of 
February, 1831, he was attacked by a severe complaint (which was 
subsequently discovered to have been a disease of the kidneys), and 
on the 26th he expired at Bristol, in the 67th year of his age. 

Mr. Hall was distinguished by the possession of a powerful 
mind, and was gifted with eloquence of the gentle and persuasive 
kind: these were constantly excited in the effort to diffuse the 
principles of happiness among his fellow-creatures. To great 
talents and learning he united a most Christian temper and dispo¬ 
sition, and a liberality which embraced in its solicitudes all the 
civil and religious liberties of man 

Mr. Hall was not less remarkable for the brilliancy of his 
conversational talents than for his eminence as a preacher. His 
manner, indeed, was somewhat abrupt, and it has been remarked by 
his best friends that his talent for repartee, which he could use 
with so much efficiency, was sometimes employed in such a manner 
as to be chargeable with levity, and to inflict unnecessary pain on 
those who were the objects of it. To those, however, who well 
knew the benevolence of his heart, and who could receive it in 
Christian temper, it was occasionally the means of conveying im¬ 
portant and valuable reproof. An instance of this is related by the 
author of “ The Great Metropolis, 1 ’ in his sketch of the character 
of the late Rev. Matthew Wilks. “ Mr. Wilks, 1 ’ says this 
writer, “ was fearless and straightforward in the expression of Ins 
opinions on all subjects and on all occasions. He never hesitated 
to rebuke to their face his brother ministers, when he thought 
there was anything inconsistent in their conduct. Sometimes this 
caused unpleasant feelings towards him on the part of the persons 
so rebuked. In various instances his reproofs were resented, and 


328 


YOUNG man's companion. 


his right to administer them openly questioned. But the only 
person, so far as my knowledge goes, that ever fairly put 
Mr. Wilks down, when he was acting the part of a censor of 
other men's conduct, was the Rev. Robert Hall. Mr. Wilks, one 
day, in the presence of several ministers and other religious men, 
addressed Mr. Hall as follows, immediately after the latter had 
been indulging in those sarcasms, and jokes, at the expense of 
other men, to which he was so much in the habit of giving utter¬ 
ance :—“ Mr. Hall, we all admit you are a great man ; some of 
us think you are a good man ; but I must plainly tell you there 
are many persons who doubt your Christianity altogether.” 

“ Why so, Sir? ” inquired Mr. Hall, in his usual impatient and 
abrupt manner. “ Why so, Sir ? Why should any man doubt 
my Christianity any more than your Christianity, Sir ?” 

“Because, Mr. Hall,” replied Mr. Wilks, “you are so much in 
the habit of making acrimonious remarks and sporting jokes at 
other people’s expense.” 

“ Well, Sir,” returned Mr. Hall, “ and what if I sometimes do ? 
The only difference, Sir, between you and me, is, that I speak my 
nonsense in the parlour and you speak yours in the pulpit.” 

Mr. Wilks, strong as were his nerves, w r as completely put down, 
as the phrase is, by the combined wit and severity of the remark. 
He was heard afterwards to say that “he would never again take 
upon himself the office of rebuking Mr. Hall for any improprieties 
of speech of which he might be guilty in his presence.” 

The entire works of this eminent writer and preacher have been 
published since his death under the superintendence of his inti¬ 
mate friend Dr. Olinthus Gregory, of Woolwich, complete in six 
vols. 8vo. 


DR. WILLIAM CAREY. 

This eminent Christian missionary and distinguished Oriental 
scholar was born at Paulerspury, in Northamptonshire, on the 
17th of August, 1761. His father kept a small free-school in 
the village, in which he gave his son an ordinary English educa¬ 
tion ; but at a very early period William Carey discovered a 
great aptitude in acquiring knowledge, and much diligence in 
seeking it. When he had attained the age of fourteen years, he was 
apprenticed to a shoemaker in the village of Hackleton, where he 
attracted the notice, and obtained the friendship of the Rev. 
Thomas Scott, then of Ravenstone. While resident at Hackle- 
ton, and before he had reached his twentieth year, his mind 
became seriously and devoutly affected. He united himself in 
Christian communion with a Baptist congregation, and commenced 


BIOGRAPHY. 


329 


village preaching, and in the year 1783, he was publicly baptized 
at Northampton, in the river Nen, by the late Dr. Hyland. 
Three years afterwards he was chosen pastor of the Baptist 
congregation at Moulton, near Northampton. After he had 
settled in this village, he married his first wife. His resources 
were then so limited, that he and his family often lived many days 
together without tasting animal food ; yet he studied the Latin, 
Greek, and Hebrew languages, and occupied his spare time, and 
employed the energies of Iris active mind, in extracting from the 
Holy Scriptures, and arranging for himself, a system of divine truth. 

His pursuits led to an acquaintance with the Rev. Robert Hall, 
then of Armsby, and with Messrs. Fuller, Sutcliff, and Ryland, 
other Baptist ministers in that neighbourhood, with whom he 
frequently communicated on the subject of religion. He was 
also materially assisted in his inquiries, and eventually settled in 
his opinions, by examining the writings of President Edwards; 
whose principles he is stated to have “ drank in with approbation 
and delight.* 11 From Moulton he removed to Leicester in the 
year 1787, having been invited to take charge of the Baptist 
congregation in that town. In this new station his zeal and per¬ 
severance gained him many friends, and he made missionary 
enterprise among the heathen the constant subject of conversation 
with neighbouring ministers, until he had inspired them with views 
similar to his own, and disposed them to associate for the accom¬ 
plishment of their benevolent purpose. This they did on the 
2d of October, 1792, when they assembled at Kettering in 
Northamptonshire, and then formed themselves into a Baptist 
Missionary Society. 

India was the field which they chose for the commencement of 
their operations, where a Mr. Thomas had been some time labour¬ 
ing, and returned to England to procure assistance in the cause. Mr. 
Carey, with Mr. Thomas, who died in India not long after his arri¬ 
val, was solemnly designated to the work of an evangelist by the 
Baptist ministers of the midland counties, assembled at Leicester, 
on the 20th of May, 1793; and on the 13th of June following, 
the two missionaries embarked on board a Danish Indiaman, 
accompanied by Mr. Carey's whole family. Early in 1794, they 
arrived in Bengal, where, at the very commencement of their 
career, they encountered two discouraging events. A native, in 
whom they expected to meet with a convert to Christianity, had 
relapsed into idolatry, and a small investment, which they had 
taken with them as the means of their support and establishment, 
and the boat which contained it, were sunk in the Hooghlv, 
leaving Carey, with his wife and children, in a foreign land, 

u u 


330 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


suddenly deprived of nearly all their means of subsistence. Thus 
desolate, they proceeded about forty miles east of Calcutta, in an 
open boat, in search for a home, and on the night of the 16th of 
February, 1794, landed at Dahetta, the residence of the late 
Charles Short, Esq., from whom they received the kindest attention 
and hospitality. With that gentleman the sister of Mrs. Carey 
was not long afterwards united in marriage. 

While in this neighbourhood, Mr. Carey erected a temporary 
residence or tent, purposing to support his family by the cultiva¬ 
tion of land; but early in the month of March he w r as invited to 
take charge of an indigo factory near Malda, the property of 
Mr. Udney, a servant of the East India Company of high rank. 
Mr. Carey accepted the invitation, and arrived there on the 15 th 
of June following. His letters written at this period describe his 
feelings of extreme regret, arising out of his inability fully to 
execute his commission through want of a sufficient acquaintance 
with the native languages; and his fixed determination to devote 
all his energies, and all his surplus earnings, to the translation and 
printing, at the earliest practicable period, of the Bible in the 
Bengalhee language. In the year 1795, he suffered, both in his 
own person and in his family, much severe illness, followed by the 
loss of one of his children ; he, nevertheless, succeeded in the 
establishment of a school in the neighbourhood of his factory, and 
began to preach there in the language of the country every 
sabbath day, and on one other day in every week. In 1797 
Mr. Carey made ajourney into Bootan, and obtained the consent 
of the Soudah to an attempt to introduce Christianity into that 
country, so soon as a fit agent could be provided. In the same, 
and in the following years, he preached publicly at Dinagepore. 
Towards the close of 1.799, he resolved to relinquish his appoint¬ 
ment in the neighbourhood of Malda, and to take up his residence 
in the Danish settlement of Serampore, a place which has since de¬ 
rived its chief importance and celebrity from its being the seat of 
this mission. Mr. Carey appears to have been induced to take this 
step in consequence of the East India Company’s government 
having, from political considerations, refused to permit some 
younger missionaries, who had been sent to his assistance, to 
establish themselves with him at his inland station. 

Mr. Carey’s removal from Malda to Serampore was attended by 
some sacrifices, but it had its countervailing advantages. At 
Serampore, the missionaries had assurance that their object was 
recognised and approved by the Danish governor, Colonel Bic, 
and that they would enjoy adequate protection in their missionary 
labours ; the town of Serampore and surrounding country were 


BIOGRAPHY. 


331 


also more populous than the vicinity of Malda, and afforded better 
accommodation and greater facilities for printing the Sacred 
Scriptures in the native languages. The mission family, upon its 
establishment at Serampore, consisted of the senior missionary, 
Mr. Carey, with three younger assistants, Messrs. Ward, Marshman, 
and Fountain, then recently arrived from England, together with 
their wives and children. A school for children and youth was 
immediately opened, and preaching commenced ; the missionaries 
supplying both departments of service in rotation. A printing 
press was also established with the consent of the governor, and 
under a condition that it should be confined in its operations to 
the printing of philological works and the Scriptures in the native 
languages ; and an edition of the Scriptures in the Bengalhee 
language was immediately commenced with the aid of types from 
Europe. 

This year, it was stated in the missionary reports, did not close 
without the conversion of two natives, Gokool and Kristno, who 
both renounced caste, and came and ate publicly with the mission¬ 
aries ; but their conversion caused a considerable disturbance in 
Serampore ; the natives in that settlement, to the number of not 
less than £,000, having assembled, seizing the converts, and drag¬ 
ging them before the Danish authorities, by whom their conduct 
was defended and their persons were liberated. Gokool, however, 
appears to have been intimidated by this violent proceeding from 
submitting to the ordinance of baptism as he had intended. 
Kristno and his family were baptized; and, shortly afterwards, 
several other converts followed their example. 

In 1801, Mr. Carey’s success in the study of the vernacular 
languages of India recommended him for an honourable and 
lucrative appointment under the government. The governoi- 
general, Marquis Wellesley, had taken upon himself the respons¬ 
ibility of founding a college in Fort William, in which the junior 
servants might undergo a regular course of training for the public 
service ; and he selected Carey to fill the chair of professor, in the 
Sanscrit, Bengalhee, and Mahratta languages. In 1805, Mr. 
Carey published his “Grammar of the Mahratta Language,” and in 
the same year opened a mission chapel in the Loll bazaar in 
Calcutta; but in the following year, while Sir George Barlow held 
the provisional charge of the government of India, the Vellore 
mutiny occurred, supposed to have been occasioned by the 
apprehensions of the native troops lest the Company should deter¬ 
mine to pursue a system of forcible proselytism. This event 
so alarmed the Bengal council, that orders were issued for the 
discontinuance, for a time at least, of all missionary exertions. 


332 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


Mr. Carey was suddenly made acquainted with this order one 
morning on his way to his office in the college. Such, however, 
was the personal respect entertained towards him, that it was 
communicated in the form of a request that he would not preach 
to the natives, nor suffer native converts to preach ; nor distribute, 
nor suffer the natives to distribute, religious tracts ; nor send forth 
converted natives ; nor take any step, by conversation or otherwise, 
for persuading the natives to embrace Christianity. In the dis¬ 
cussions which immediately followed this communication, Mr. 
Carey maintained the inexpediency, and even inconsistency with 
the dictates of Christianity, of such an utter abandonment of its 
claims. The order was, therefore, very much modified; and 
although preaching in the Loll bazaar in Calcutta was, for a time, 
discontinued, the missionaries were assured that the government 
was “well satisfied with their character and deportment, and that 
no complaint had ever been lodged against them. - ” They more¬ 
over continued to enjoy, as an ulterior resort, and so far as it 
might be necessary for them to avail themselves of it, the local 
protection of the Danish flag. 

About the year 1805, Mr. Carey received from one of the 
British universities a diploma as doctor of divinity, and in the 
following year was elected a member of the Asiatic Society of 
Calcutta. From this period to the close of his earthly career, the 
mission over which Mr. Carey presided, appears to have been 
almost uniformly prosperous. In 1814, the missionaries had 
twenty stations in India, at which the distribution of religious 
tracts, and the Sacred Scriptures, together with the education of 
children, and at some of them preaching, were constantly carried 
on. In the following year, 1815, the new Charter Act of 1813, 
which had made express provision for the moral improvement of 
the natives of India, came into operation, and not only gave a 
legal sanction to the exertions of the missionaries, as schoolmasters 
or teachers, but provided funds, which were directed towards the 
same end, at least as to the education of the natives. In the 
department of philology Dr. Carey's labours were immense ; his 
“ Mahratta Grammar,*' 1 already mentioned, was followed by a 
“ Sanscrit Grammar, 11 4to, in 1806; a “Mahratta Dictionary," 
8vo, in 1810 ; a “ Punjabee Grammar," 8vo, in 1812; a “ Tel- 
inga Grammar," 8vo, in 1814; also, between the years 1806 and 
1810, he published the “ Raymayana,’ 1 in the original text, care¬ 
fully collated with the most authentic MSS., in three volumes, 
8vo. His philological works of a later date are a “ Bengalhee 
Dictionary," in three vols. 4to, 1818, of which a second edition 
was published in 1825, and another in 8vo, in 1827—1830; a 


BIOGRAPHY. 


333 


“Bhotanta Dictionary,'” 8vo, 1826 ; also, a “Grammar” of the 
same language, edited by him and Dr. Marshman. He had also 
prepared a “ Dictionary of the Sanscrit,” which was nearly com¬ 
pleted, when a fire broke out in Serampore and burnt down the 
printing-office, destroying the impression, together with the copy 
and other property. The versions of the “ Sacred Scriptures,” 
which have issued from the Serampore press, and in the pre¬ 
paration of which Dr. Carey took an active and laborious part, are 
numerous. They are in the following languages :—Sanscrit, 
Hindee, Brij Bhassa, Mahratta, Bengalhee, Orissa, or Ooriya, 
Telinga, Kurnata, Maldivian, Gujurattee, Buloshee, Pushtoo, 
Punjabee or Shekh, Kashmeer, Assam, Burman, Pali or Mag- 
udha, Tamul, Cingalese, Armenian, Malay, Hindosthanee, and 
Persian ; to which must be added the Chinese. 

Dr. Carey lived to see the Sacred Text, chiefly by his instru¬ 
mentality, translated into the vernacular dialects of more than forty 
different tribes, and thus made accessible to nearly 200,000,000 
of human beings, exclusive of the Chinese empire, in which the 
labours of the Serampore missionaries have been in some measure 
superseded by those of Dr. Morrison. To the study of Botany 
he gave much attention ; his principal service to this science, and 
4iis last work, was the editing his deceased friend Dr. Roxburgh's 
“Flora Medica,” in 3 vols. 8vo. The year 1834 terminated the 
labours of this excellent man. His health had been declining for 
several years, when, in September 1833, he had a stroke of 
apoplexy; after this he was confined to his bed in a state of great 
helplessness, scarcely able to speak or to receive nourishment, till on 
Monday, June 9, 1834, he expired at Serampore in the 73d year of 
his age. He was thrice married, and had several children. A 
widow and three sons survived him. William, who occupied 
the missionary station at Cutwa; Jabez, who was employed 
under the government in establishing schools in the distant pro¬ 
vince of Ajmere ; and Jonathan, formerly an attorney of the 
Supreme Court of Calcutta. 

Dr. Carey’s private character is thus summed up by his bio¬ 
grapher, the Rev. Eustace Carey. “ In his religious feelings and 
experience, his simplicity was most to be admired, and was worthy 
of unqualified imitation. The plain, substantial, unvarnished 
doctrines of the gospel, were the basis of his hope, the stay and 
consolation of his spirit. 4 1 see no one thing in all my past life,’ 
he observes to his friend Dr. Ryland, after recovering from a 
serious illness, 4 upon which I can rest, and am persuaded of the 
daily and hourly necessity of trusting my perishing soul in the 
hands of my Redeemer. 


334 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 

“ ‘Should you outlive me, and have any influence to prevent it, 
I most earnestly request that no epistles of praise may ever ac¬ 
company my name ; such as, ‘ the faithful servant of God,’ &c. 
All such expressions would convey a falsehood. May I but be 
accepted at last, I am sure all the glory must be given to divine 
grace from first to last. To me belongeth shame and confusion of 
face.' 1 It was in this spirit he at length finished his course, looking 
for the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ unto eternal life.” 


HISTORY. 


?A)C, 


CHAPTER VII. 

HISTORY. 


Of the various kinds of reading, to which our attention may he 
directed for the purpose of acquiring knowledge, that of history 
is evidently most calculated to convey general information. “ His¬ 
tory,” says a celebrated modern writer, “ is the exhibition of man, 
the display of human life, and the foundation of general know¬ 
ledge. It expands the ideas, enlarges the mind, and eradicates 
those narrow and illiberal prejudices which dim and corrupt the 
understanding. By developing the causes which influence and 
direct the opinions and conduct of men, in different ages, in dif¬ 
ferent countries, and in different situations of life, and under 
different political and religious establishments, it tends to inspire 
liberality of sentiment, and a spirit of toleration and universal 
benevolence. While we contemplate the various phenomena of 
the moral world, and the infinitely diversified and complicated 
scenes of human action, history exhibits, in successive order, as in 
a moving picture, all the generations of men. It displays the 
effects of political and religious systems on nations and on indi¬ 
viduals, and shows the rise and fall of empires, kingdoms, and 
states, with the causes of their prosperity and decline. In 
perusing the history of nations, we have an opportunity of inves¬ 
tigating the circumstances which gave rise to their existence, 
procured their aggrandizement, precipitated them from their 
elevation, or effected their final subversion.” 

In a religious point of view, the advantages of history are still 
more evident. The religious reader of general history will ob¬ 
serve the controlling hand of Providence in the direction of 
events ; in turning the most unworthy actions and instruments to 
the accomplishment of its own purposes. 

The youth who is not thoroughly armed with Christian prin¬ 
ciples may be tempted to mutiny, not only against justice, but the 
very existence of a superintending providence, in contemplating 
those subsequent instances which occur in history, of the ill suc¬ 
cess of the more virtuous cause, and the prosperity o( the wicked. 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


386 

He will see with astonishment that it is Rome which triumphs, 
while Carthage, which had clearly the better cause, Calls. Now 
and then, indeed, a Cicero prevails, and a Catiline is subdued ; 
but often it is Csesar successful against the somewhat juster pre¬ 
tensions of Pompey, and against the still clearer cause of Cato. 
It is Octavius who triumphs, and it is over Brutus that he tri¬ 
umphs. It is Tiberius who is enthroned, while Germanicus falls. 

Thus his faith in a righteous Providence at a first view is 
staggered, and he is ready to say, “ Surely it is not God that 
governs the earth."” But on a fuller consideration, (and here the 
suggestions of a Christian instructor are peculiarly wanted,) there 
will appear great wisdom in this very confflsion of vice and virtue ; 
for it is calculated to send our thoughts forward to a world of 
retribution, the principle of retribution being so imperfectly 
established in this. It is, indeed, so far common for virtue to 
have the advantage here, in point of happiness at least, though not 
of glory, that the course of Providence is still calculated to prove 
that God is on the side of virtue; but still, virtue is so often un¬ 
successful, that clearly the God of virtue, in order that his works 
may be perfect, must have in reserve a world of retribution. This 
confused state of things, therefore, is just that state which is most 
of all calculated to confirm the deeply considerate mind in the 
belief of a future state ; for if all here were even, or very nearly 
so, should we not say, “ Justice is already satisfied, and there 
needs no other world ?” On the other hand, if vice always tri¬ 
umphed, should we not then be ready to argue in favour of vice 
rather than virtue, and to wish for no other world? 

Distrust and diffidence in our own judgment seems to be also 
an important instruction to be learnt from history. How contrary 
to all expectation do events there recorded commonly turn out ! 
How continually is the most sagacious conjecture of human pene¬ 
tration baffled ! and yet we proceed to foretel this consequence, and 
to predict that event from the appearances of things under our 
own observation, with the same arrogant certaintv as if we had 
never been warned by the monitory annals of successive ages. 

But all knowledge will be comparatively of little value, if we 
neglect self-knowledge; and of self-knowledge, history and 
biography may be made successful vehicles. It will be to 
little purpose that our pupils become accurate critics on the cha¬ 
racters of othets, while they remain ignorant of themselves : for 
while to those who exercise a habit of self-application a book of 
profane history may be made an instrument of improvement in 
this difficult science ; so without such a habit the Bible itself 
may, in this view, be read with little profit. 


• HISTORY. 


sm 

It will be to no purpose that the reader weeps over the forti¬ 
tude of the Christian hero, or the constancy of the martyr, if he 
do not bear in mind that he may be called to endure his own 
common trials with something of the same temper: if he do not 
bear in mind that, to control irregular humours, and to submit to 
the daily vexations of life, will require, though in a lower degree, 
the exertion of the same principle, and supplication for the aid of 
the same spirit, which sustained the Christian hero in the trying 
conflicts of life, or the martyr in his agony at the stake. 

History is commonly divided into sacred and profane. Sacred 
histqry is the history of religion before the birth of Jesus Christ, 
and is to be found in the Bible. Profane history includes the 
histories of all nations which are not written by inspired writers. 

SACRED HISTORY. 

A knowledge of the early events in history, is derived entirely 
from the Holy Scriptures. These events, therefore, form an impor¬ 
tant part of sacred history. According to the best chronologers, 
the world was created about 4004 years before the birth of Christ. 
The names of the first man and woman were Adam and Eve; who, 
disobeying the positive command of their maker, entailed death 
and misery on their posterity. The general deluge took place 
1656 years after the creation, and 2348 before Christ: in which 
all mankind were destroyed, except Noah and his family, whp were 
saved in an ark built by God’s command, and with them two of 
every kind of living creatures. Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham, 
and Japhet, among whom all the earth was divided. From Shem, 
the Hebrews were descended; Ham is said to have been the 
progenitor of the African tribes ; and the posterity of Japhet 
peopled the greater part of the West. 

The descendants of Noah began to disperse on the confusion of 
tongues, which took place at the building of the tower of Babel, 
as a punishment for the arrogance of men, who thought of equalling 
themselves with the supreme. 

The next important event which happened was the calling of 
Abraham, who was ordered to leave his kindred and country, and 
go into the land of Canaan, in order that the worship of the one 
true God might be preserved among men, who had already become 
grossly corrupted. 

Though the Jews frequently fell into idolatry, a portion among 
them always preserved the sublime truths that had been delivered 
to their forefathers; and a magnificent temple was erected at 
Jerusalem by Solomon, one of their kings in which the 

x x 


338 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


holy ceremonies were performed, by a distinct order of priests, the 
posterity of Aaron, who were set apart for the service of God. 

The Jews were indeed a favoured people, for though they often 
provoked God, he did not leave them without a witness of himself, 
sending them a succession of prophets, who foretold remote events, 
and announced, in terms at first mysterious, but gradually more 
clear, the future birth of a Messiah, who was to give them a new 
and more perfect law, and to abolish the rites and ceremonies es¬ 
tablished by Moses. 

The public life of Jesus Christ commenced about his thirtieth 
year; at this age he entered on his ministry, which lasted only to 
his thirty-third year. 

He first chose twelve disciples from among the most humble and 
ignorant of the people, who accompanied him in his labours of love, 
and imbibed the doctrines which he taught: the purity of his life 
corresponded with the purity of his doctrine ; and at last he sealed 
his testimony with his blood. 

On the third day he rose again, and after a stay of forty days oa 
earth, during which he several times conversed with his apostles, 
instructing them how to act, he ascended into heaven, and now 
sitteth at the right hand of God, “ making intercession for us.” 

The apostles, after his ascension, having received the Holy 
Ghost, dispersed abroad to spread the gospel of Christ; and by 
miracles confirmed the truth of their mission. The religion of 
Jesus thus rapidly spread over the world, and ten persecutions 
only served to establish it deeper in the hearts of mankind. 

PROFANE HISTORY. 

Egypt. —The first people that formed a regular government 
were the Egyptians, whose history goes back almost to the deluge. 
The first king of this country was Menes, probably the Misraim of 
Scripture, who is said to have been the inventor of arts, and the 
civilizer of a large portion of the eastern world. His first wife 
was Isis, worshipped as a divinity. On his death Egypt was 
divided into four dynasties, Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Tanais. 

Egypt had obtained some degree of civilization under a number 
of petty sovereigns, called shepherd kings, but it afterwards relapsed 
into barbarism, which continued until the reign of Sesostris, who 
united the separate principalities into one kingdom; and by 
policy and conquest rendered himself respected at home and 
abroad. 

The princes of the house of Pharaoh were a long time kings of 
Egypt, and possessed the throne, till Cambyses, king of* Persia, 


history. 


339 


conquered that country, about 525 years before Christ; and under 
them the Egyptians were the most polished people in the world, 
and made the greatest proficiency in learning and science. 

The respect of these people for their ancestors induced them 
to embalm their dead; hence the mummies still to be met with : 
and in order that their kings might govern wisely and justly, they 
sat in judgment on their lives after their death. They were great 
astronomers, mathematicians, and mechanics ; and immense pyra¬ 
mids, probably the sepulchral monuments of their kings, are still 
among the wonders of the world. 

Egypt continued under the power of Persia till the Persian 
empire was conquered by Alexander the Great; after whose death 
it again became independent under the Ptolemys; but was re¬ 
duced to the state of a Roman province, on the death of Cleopatra, 
the wife and sister of Ptolemy Dionysius, the last king, about thirty 
years before the Christian era. 

The Ethiopians, whose country lies beyond Egypt, are supposed 
to have been originally a colony of the Egyptians; but their 
numbers, their strength, and their ferocity, soon made and kept 
them independent, and insulated from the rest of the world. 

Assyria. —At the head of the Assyrian kings who reigned at 
Babylon is placed Belus, its reputed founder, and who is supposed 
to have been the Nimrod of the Bible. 

He was succeeded by Ninus, who built Nineveh, and removed 
thither the seat of empire. He was the first who made war solely 
for the purpose of dominion. Having reduced Asia, he conquered 
the Bactrians, with their king Zoroaster. After this he espoused 
Semiramis, by whom he had a son, called Ninyas. Semiramis was 
a queen of heroic mind : disguising her sex, she took possession 
of the kingdom, instead of her son ; enlarged Babylon, and 
surrounded it with a wall, which was 480 furlongs in extent. 

Ninyas having slain his mother, took possession of the kingdom, 
which had been greatly improved by his parents. He was a very 
slothful sovereign, but rarely seen, and grew old in the company of 
his concubines. 

Sardanapalus, the last of the Assyrian monarchs, was effeminate 
in the extreme. When Arbaces, governor of Media, beheld him 
sitting in the midst of his women, twirling the distaff and spinning 
the purple, he was moved with indignation. He waged war against 
him, and reduced him to such distresses, that he burnt himself and 
his riches in a fit of despair, and both perished together in the 
flames. 

After the death of Sardanapalus, the Assyrian empire was divided 


340 


YOUNG MAN^S COMPANION. 


into three kingdoms ; the Median, Assyrian, and Babylonian. 
The first king of the Median dynasty was Arbaces. This king¬ 
dom continued till the time of Astyages, who was subdued by 
Cyrus. Ecbatana was the metropolis of the Median, as Nineveh 
was of the Assyrian empire; the first king was Phul, succeeded 
by Tiglath-pileser, Salmanassar, Senacherib, and at last by Esar- 
liaddon, who took possession of the kingdom of Babylon ; but 
after his death the Assyrian kingdom was subjected to the Medes 
and Babylonians, who destroyed Nineveh. The principal city of 
the Babylonian kingdom was Babylon. Here also the royal re¬ 
sidence was fixed. The most celebrated of the kings of Babylon was 
Nebuchadnezzar, who subdued almost the whole of the east. The last 
was Darius the Mede; but he being conquered by Cyrus, king of 
Persia, the Babylonians submitted to the Persians. Thus, in the 
time of Cyrus, there arose a new monarchy, called the Persian. 

Persia. —This monarchy continued for more than 200 years, 
from Cyrus, whose reign began a. m. 3468, to Darius Codomannus; 
who being conquered by Alexander, the empire was transferred to 
the Greeks, a. m. 3674. 

Cyrus, founder of the empire, a prince possessing many 
virtues, procured the return of the Jews into their own country. 
Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, subdued Egypt. He succeeded to 
his father s kingdom, but not to his virtues; for he filled every 
place with blood and slaughter. He was succeeded by Darius, the 
son of Hystaspes, who destroyed the famous city of Babylon, and 
not long after undertook an expedition into Scythia, in which he 
was unsuccessful. In the battle of Marathon his whole army was 
cut off by the Athenians, under the command of Miltiades. 

Xerxes, a son of Darius byAtossa, daughter of Cyrus, succeeded 
his father. To revenge the slaughter made by the Athenians, he 
marched into Greece with a prodigious army, but, being vanquished 
by the Greeks, his army was entirely destroyed by the Spartan 
general Pausanias, at the battle of Platsea. Xerxes returning from 
this unhappy expedition, was despised by his own people, and at 
last slain by Artabanus, one of his own guards. He was succeeded 
by his son Xerxes Longimanus, who is famed for protecting the 
Jews, and restoring them to their own country. During several 
succeeding reigns we find only turbulence and murder, till at last 
Darius Codomannus was placed on the throne by the intrigues of 
Bagoas the eunuch. This emperor, being defeated by Alexander 
the Great in three battles, was deprived both of his kingdom and 
his life. He was the last of the kings of Persia, the dominion of 
which, ater his death, was transferred to the Greeks. 


HISTORY. 


341 


Greece. —The ancient inhabitants of Greece were extremely 
barbarous. The first dawn of civilization arose under the Titans , 
a Phenician or Egyptian colony, who settled in the country about 
the time of Moses. 

The earliest annals of Greece, which can at all be depended 
on, commence with Inachus, the last of the Titans, who founded 
the kingdom of Argos, and one of his sons, Egialtes, that of Si- 
cyon. a. c. 1856. In the following century happened the deluge 
of Ogyges, a. c. 1796, after which followed a period of barbarism 
for more than 200 years. 

Cecrops, the leader of another colony from Egypt, landed in 
Attica, in 1582, a.c. and connecting himself with the last king, 
succeeded on his death to the sovereignty. He built twelve cities, 
and was eminent as a lawgiver and politician. 

The regal government subsisted at Athens nearly 500 years. 
Its last king was Codrus, who sacrificed his life for the welfare of 
his country; on which the Athenians chose nine magistrates, called 
archons, out of the principal persons in the city. Their office, 
which at first was hereditary, afterwards underwent several changes, 
and at last became annual. But these changes were not brought 
about quietly. The state was convulsed by them ; when Draco, 
(who was elevated to the archonship 624 years before the Christian 
era) endeavoured by the extreme severity of his laws, which were 
said “ to be written in blood,” to repress these disorders. About 
thirty years afterwards Solon, one of the wisest and best of men, 
established a milder and more equitable system of jurisprudence. 

The republican form of government was subverted at Athens 
by Pisistratus, who usurped the supreme authority, which he and 
his posterity retained fifty years. 

The next great revolution was the unfortunate issue of the 
Peloponnesian war; Athens then sunk under the power of the 
Spartans, who about 400 years b.c. imposed thirty tyrants on the 
Athenians. They were ultimately subdued by Philip, king of 
Macedon; but, by the assistance of the Romans, the Athenians 
afterwards, for a short time, recovered their liberties, though des¬ 
tined in the end to be swallowed up by that victorious nation. 

The kingdom of Sparta was founded by Lselex, who made its 
government monarchical. The other Grecian states were founded 
bv Perseus, who built the city of Mycenae, and Pelops, who 
erected that of Elis. 

The most celebrated Spartan legislator was Lycurgus, who 
abridged the regal power by the institution of a senate. About 
130 years after his demise, five Ephori were annually elected by the 
people, with extensive powers, to curb the senate. Sparta, with 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


342 


the other Grecian states, fell under the power of the Macedonians, 
and eventually became a province of the Roman empire. 

The kingdom of Macedonia was founded by Caranus, an Argive; 
but it was of inferior rank, till Philip, conquering Greece in 
the battle of Cheronea, subjected all its states to his dominion ; 
and Alexander the Great, the son of Philip, subduing Persia and 
India, carried the Macedonian power to the highest pitch of 
elevation ; but dying of a debauch at Babylon, in the 33d year of 
his age and the thirteenth of his reign, his dominions and conquests 
were divided among four of his greatest generals, namely, Ptolemy, 
Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucas. Macedon continued an inde¬ 
pendent kingdom, till it was reduced to a Roman province, b.c. 168. 

Rome was founded by Romulus, b.c. 753. It was at first 
peopled with vagabonds, slaves, and criminals, of the male sex 
only; in consequence of which they made war on the Sabines, 
and carried off their women. 

The kingly power continued through seven reigns, but the only 
distinguished king, except Romulus, was Numa, who introduced 
laws and religion. The dishonour of Lucretia, a Roman matron, 
by Tarquin, the last king of Rome, irritated the people to such a 
degree, that they drove out the whole family. On this a republican 
form of government was established, under two magistrates, an¬ 
nually elected, called consuls, whose office consisted in superin¬ 
tending the rites of religion, in controlling the finances, levying 
and commanding armies, and presiding at public assemblies. 

In periods of imminent danger, however, they chose a dictator, 
whom they invested with a temporary despotism ; but the people 
being dissatisfied with their share in the government, were allowed 
to choose five magistrates, called tribunes, whose number was 
afterwards increased to ten, and whose office consisted in defending 
the oppressed, and bringing the enemies of the people to justice. 

The decemviri were ten persons elected for the institution of new 
laws, and invested with absolute power for one year. Appius Claudius, 
one of the number, attempted to render the office perpetual; but 
the people punished the usurper, and restored the consular and 
tribunitian power, which had been set aside under the decemviri. 

a.u.c. 394, the Gauls, under their leader Brennus, invaded 
Italy, took Rome, plundered it, and afterwards laid it in ashes. 
From this state the Romans had scarcely risen, when they began 
to subdue many of the neighbouring nations; and in less than 
500 years from the foundation of their city by Romulus, the 
Romans were masters of Italy. 

The Carthaginians were a powerful and commercial people cn 


HISTORY. 


S43 

the coast of Africa, where Tunis now stands. Becoming the rivals 
of Rome, they were regarded as enemies, and having assisted the 
enemies of the imperial city, war was declared against them. In 
the third war, about b.c. 146, Carthage was plundered and levelled 
with the ground, when the Roman empire extended over Greece, 
Africa, Syria, and all the kingdoms of Asia Minor. 

Pompeyand Caesar having both obtained the highest dignities, 
and neither being willing to own a superior, Caesar, who had been 
victorious in Gaul and Britain, being made dictator, set out in 
pursuit of his rival, Pompey, who was attended by the senate 
and consuls; and meeting him in the plains of Pharsalia, in 
Thessaly, the conflict began; when Caesar, proving victorious, 
became master of the liberties of Rome, b.c. 43. 

All opposition being ineffectual, Caesar made himself absolute; 
till at last he was assassinated in the senate-house by the machi¬ 
nations of Brutus and Cassius. But the Romans did not recover 
their former liberties by the death of Caesar; for Octavius, his 
nephew, having got rid of every competitor, had the titles of 
Emperor and Augustus conferred on him by the senate, and 
became sole master of the Roman empire, b.c. 31. This great 
and powerful prince, by his address, and the arts of insinuation, 
rendered despotism supportable to the Romans; and extended 
the empire from the Rhine and the Danube on the north, to the 
Euphrates on the east; and from the Atlantic ocean on the west, 
to the deserts of Arabia and Africa on the south. In this reign 
lived the most illustrious of the Roman classical writers. 

Augustus was succeeded by‘Tiberius, a man infamous for every 
vice. Then Caius Caligula assumed the purple, who, in mockery 
of the Roman people, made his horse consul. To Caligula, who 
was assassinated, succeeded Claudius, who made an expedition into 
Britain, but was at last imprisoned by the empress Agrippina, 
that the diadem might descend to her son, the execrable Nero, 
one of the most cruel tyrants ' that ever disgraced or degraded 
human nature. He was finally his own executioner. 

The successors of Nero were, first, Galba, who, on account of 
his cruelty and injustice, was assassinated ; then Otlio, who reigned 
only three months; and thirdly, Vitellius, whose reign was likewise 
very short. He was succeeded by Vespasian, called to rule in 
advanced age, in compliment to his distinguished merit. Vespasian 
left the empire to his son Titus, “ the delight of mankind,” of 
whom it was said, that it had been good for the Romans if he had 
never been born, or rather, that he had never died. Titus was 
succeeded by his brother Domitian, a monster of cruelty and vice. 
He was the last of the twelve Csesars. The imperial power did 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


34 * 

not end here, for Nerva received the purple from the assassins of 
Domitian, who adopted Trajan, a prince possessed of every quality 
that could adorn a throne. His kinsman Adrian was the successor 
of Trajan, who adopted the philosophic Antonius, and who left 
the crown to Marcus Aurelius, his son-in-law; but afterwards 
Commodus, his own son, assumed the purple, only to show how 
unworthy he was of elevated rank. He was followed by Pertinax, 
who rose by his virtues alone. On the death of Pertinax, the 
praetorian bands, or imperial guards, took upon them to expose 
the empire to sale, and it was purchased by Severus. It would 
be uninteresting to go through the whole catalogue of emperors, 
who rose and fell as the soldiers were inclined. But it may be 
proper to particularize Dioclesian, who divided the imperial 
dominions into four parts, over which presided two emperors and 
two Caesars; and Constantine the Great, who was born in Britain, 
and who removed the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople. 

The Roman empire was finally divided by Theodosius into 
two, the eastern and the western ; his son Arcadius reigned in 
the east, and his son Honorius in the west. But the barbarians 
pressing the western empire on all sides, and the Romans being sunk 
in effeminacy, an end was put to it by the Goths and Huns, in the 
reign of Augustulus, who was compelled to resign the imperial 
dignity, a.d. 476. The eastern empire continued till 1453, 
when Constantinople was taken by Mahomet II. the sultan of 
Turkey, and the Roman empire and people lost their names. 
Since that time the popes, till lately, have had both temporal and 
spiritual power in Rome, as also the Turks in Constantinople. 

At the extinction of the Roman empire in the west, numerous 
states and kingdoms were formed in Europe, most of which have 
continued with some changes to the present day. The following 
is a brief historical sketch of the principal of these. 

Germany. —The emperor of Germany, -whose eldest son or 
heir was usually elected king of the Romans, as a preliminary 
step to his succession to the empire, affected to be the represen¬ 
tative of the ancient Romans; and before the late subversion, 
Germany contained not fewer than 300 sovereign princes, inde¬ 
pendent in their own dominions, but forming one political body, 
which recognised the emperor as its head. 

The present imperial family derive their origin from Rodolph, 
count of Hapsburgh, who by his bravery and address added 
several extensive countries to the empire, and formed a plan of 
aggrandizement, which his family long pursued. 


HISTORY. 


345 


The first emperor, after the dignity became elective, was 
Conrade, count of Franconia, who died in 919, and was succeeded 
by Henry, surnamed the Fowler, a prince of considerable talents; 
and who again was succeeded by his son Otho I., the most powerful 
prince of his age, and justly named the Great. 

Henry IV., called the Great, ascended the throne in 1056, when 
only an infant, and had to maintain a perpetual struggle with the 
popes, at that time the terror and the scourge of princes, and to whom 
his son Henry V. disgracefully surrendered the right of investiture. 

Henry V. was succeeded by Lothario, duke of Saxe Sup- 
lembourg; but in the reign of his successor, Conrade III., the 
sovereignty was disputed by the dukes of Bavaria, whose family 
name was Guelph, while the emperor’s general was a native of 
Heighibelin ; and this circumstance gave rise to the Guelphs and 
Ghibellines, the former of which espoused the interest of the pope, 
the latter of the emperor. 

Frederic Barbarossa followed Conrade III., to whom he was 
nephew, and justified the choice that had been made of him. 
His son, Henry VI., imitated his glorious example; but Frederic 
II., the next emperor, lost all the acquisitions of his predecessors, 
and submitted to the influence of the pope. In 1338, however, 
the Pragmatic Sanction was established, which declared that the 
pope had no right to interfere in the election of an emperor. 

In the reign of Maximilian I. the Netherlands became a part of 
the empire, about which time also Germany was divided into circles. 

Maximilian was succeeded by Charles V., the most illustrious 
of all the emperors of Germany, and whose power extended over 
both hemispheres ; but becoming disgusted with the world, he 
resigned the empire to his brother Ferdinand, and the kingdom 
of Spain to his son Philip II. 

Leopold I. during his reign concluded the peace of Westphalia, 
and saw his capital, Vienna, which had been besieged by the 
rebellious Hungarians, aided by the Turks, relieved by.the valour 
of Sobieski, king of Poland. His son and successor Joseph I., 
who mounted the imperial throne in 1705, in conjunction with 
the allies, carried on a successful war against France. 

Charles VI. at his death leaving no male issue, the Austrian 
dominions devolved to Maria Theresa, whose husband Francis I., 
Grand Duke of Tuscany, was finally raised to the imperial dignity, 
after the death of Charles VII., elector of Bavaria, who had in¬ 
termediately swayed the sceptre. 

Joseph II., who succeeded Francis I., was a wise and benevolent 
prince, on whose death, without issue, his brother Leopold II., 
duke of Tuscany, was elevated to the imperial dignity in 1790; 

Y Y 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


846 

and in less than two years left the throne to his son Francis II., 
whose reign was eventful beyond any thing that can be named in 
the annals of Germany. Embarking early in the confederacy 
against France, and being unsuccessful, by the treaty of Campo 
Formio he was obliged to cede the Netherlands to that power. 
The war being again renewed with no better success, was terminated 
by'the peace of Luneville. Another coalition was formed to resist 
the insatiate ambition of Buonaparte, and fortune being still in 
favour of that usurper, the emperor was obliged to conclude 
the treaty of Presburg, and to make many fresh sacrifices, 
among which was that of renouncing the dignity of Emperor of 
Germany, and to assume only that of Emperor of Austria. At 
length, however, by the late change in the politics of Europe, in 
which this prince took so decided a part, he has not only recovered 
most of his former dominions, but the empire has been restored 
to more than its former splendour, and many new territories have 
been added to it. See Geography, chap. IX. 

France. —The ancient name of France was Gaul; it received 
the former name from the Franks, a German tribe, who under 
Clovis established the French monarchy. 

On the death of Clovis, a civil war arose between his sons and 
their successors, who could not agree in their divisions of the 
kingdom. At length Pepin, mayor of the palace, assumed the 
sovereignty, and transmitted it to his posterity. 

His successor was Charlemagne, who, on the demise of his 
brother Carloman, became sole monarch of France; and durum 
a long and glorious reign of 45 years, extended his dominion over 
the greatest part of Europe, and was crowned at Rome in 800. 
The posterity of Charlemagne filled the throne till 987 ; when 
Hugh Capet, a potent chief, obtained possession of sovereign 
power; and thus founded the third dynasty of kings in this 
country. 

I he most memorable events which took place in the succeeding 
reigns were,—the Crusades, which commenced in the reign o*f 
Philip I., at the persuasion of Peter the Hermit, and with the 
approbation of Pope Urban; the institution of parliaments, 
under the reign of Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, who left an 
only daughter, and in whom, in consequence of the Salic law, 
which excludes females, the direct line of Capet ended, and 
Philip de \ alois, the next male heir, w T as raised to the throne in 
1328; the claim made to the French crown by Edward III. of 
England ; and the battle of Cressy, gained by that monarch. 

Henry V. of England having gained the battle of Agincourt, 


HISTORY. 


347 


in 1420, a treaty was concluded, by which his son, the unfortunate 
Henry VI., was crowned King of France at Paris; but towards 
the close of that century the French recovered from the English 
all their possessions in that country, much to the happiness of both 
nations. 

Joan of Arc, the pretended prophetess, who was afterwards 
inhumanly burnt for sorcery, distinguished herself in the reign of 
Charles VII., and was principally instrumental in delivering her 
country from the English. 

For thirty years, however, France was harassed by civil wars, 
which began in the reign of Francis II., and which were occa¬ 
sioned by attempts to extirpate the protestants, or Huguenots, as 
they were called. At length, in the reign of Charles IX., reli¬ 
gious fury broke out in all its violence, and on the eve of Saint 
.Bartholomew, 1572, about 70,000 protestants were murdered by 
order of that execrable monarch. 

In Henry III. ended the line of Valois, when Henry IV., of 
the house of Bourbon, ascended the throne ; and proving one of 
the best and most amiable of princes, justly obtained the title of 
Great; but fell by the hand of a fanatic in 1610. 

In the reign of Louis XIII. his minister Richelieu, in order to 
put an end to the disorders which prevailed, had recourse to the 
bold measure of establishing an absolute government; and the 
fetters which had been forged were riveted under Louis XIV., a 
man of the most restless spirit and unbounded ambition ; but 
who, after a series of defeats by the English and their confederates, 
was obliged to conclude the peace of Rhyswick. This prince, 
who, notwithstanding his ambition, had some great and splendid 
qualities, was succeeded by his great-grandson, Louis XV., a 
weak and debauched monarch : upon his demise, in 1774, his 
grandson, Louis XVI. mounted the throne, and expiated the 
political crimes and follies of his predecessors, by falling under 
the stroke of the guillotine, Jan. 21, 1793; while a few months 
after, his queen, Maria Antoinette of Austria, shared the same 
fate, in consequence of one of the most tremendous revolutions 
that had ever agitated and afflicted the human race. Royalty 
being abolished, a republic was established, which waged a success¬ 
ful war with the principal powers of Europe, at the same time that it 
was torn with intestine divisions, and disgraced by atrocities that 
it makes the heart shudder to contemplate. 

The republic, however, was not of long duration, for after 
various modifications, in which the name of liberty had been 
prostituted to the most unworthy purposes of faction, and deluges 
of blood had been spilt, it was found that the theories of govern- 


348 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


ment which had been formed were incompatible with practice, 
and Buonaparte, a successful and enterprising general of the revo¬ 
lution, seized on the executive power under the title of First 
Consul, and associated two others with him, in name, but without 
authority. 

Soon after he assumed the title of Emperor of the French, and 
King of Italy; established a military government, restored the 
profession of Christianity in France, and a variety of civil institu¬ 
tions which the frenzy of the revolution had abolished. For some 
time he carried his victorious arms from one side of Europe to 
the other; by force or by fraud he annexed Holland, as well as many 
of the smaller states, to France, and dictated terms of peace to 
every country except Great Britain. But the ambition which had 
prompted these excesses became his ruin: after repeated defeats 
in Spain, Portugal, Russia, Germany, and France, he was coim¬ 
pelled to yield the sovereignty of the latter to one of its native 
princes, who had long found an asylum in England, and who 
ascended the throne under the title of Louis XVIII. 

In 1824 this prince died, and was succeeded by his brother 
Charles X. whose despotic policy so exasperated the French nation 
that he was driven from the throne in the revolution of July 1830. 
Louis Philip, a descendant of the Orleans branch of the Bourbon 
family, was then raised to the throne with the title of King of the 
French. 

Spain. —On the decline of the Roman power, Spain became a 
prey to the Suevi, the Vandals, and the Alani. Adolphus, king of 
the Goths, subdued them, and founded the kingdom of the 
Visigoths, in 411, which continued till 712, when Spain was con¬ 
quered by the Saracens. At lengthen the 15th century, an union 
of the different states or kingdoms took place under Ferdinand 
and Isabella, in whose reign, and under whose auspices, Columbus 
discovered America. 

Ferdinand was succeeded by his grandson, Charles V., who, 
after filling Europe with his fame, resigned the crown to his son 
Philip II., a gloomy and vindictive tyrant, who united Portugal to 
his dominions, but who lost the Seven Provinces of the Nether¬ 
lands, in 1579. 

Under Philip IV. Portugal rebelled, and established its inde¬ 
pendence. Under his successor, Philip V. the first of the house 
of Bourbon, extensive wars involved Europe, which were concluded 
by the treaty of Utrecht. Charles III. entered into the famous 
family compact, and waged an unequal war with England. 
Charles IV. at first made a demonstration against the French 


HISTORY. 


349 


revolutionists; but changing sides, he became a vassal to France, 
and Buonaparte taking advantage of his weakness, carried both him 
and his son, afterwards styled Ferdinand VII. prisoners into France. 
He then endeavoured to place his brother Joseph on the throne of 
Spain. But the opposition he met with from the Spaniards, and 
the powerful support they for several years received from England, 
conspired finally to defeat his project, and to deliver this unhappy 
country from so galling a tyranny. 

On the restoration of Ferdinand, his first acts were to revive the 
inquisition, and other abuses. The dissatisfaction with his conduct, 
together with the contrariety of political opinions existing in the 
nation, which gave rise to the Carlist civil war, have rendered 
Spain for some years a scene of civil commotion. Ferdinand 
VII. died in 1833, and was succeeded by his daughter Isabella, 
the present sovereign. 

Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. —The history of Sweden, 
Denmark, and Norway, at an early period, is necessarily obscure ; 
and, as is usual among uncivilized nations, we find little except 
revolutions and massacres. At length they were united under 
Margaret Waldemar, by the treaty of Calmar, 1387. But Gus- 
tavus Vasa, a descendant of the ancient kings of Sweden, recovered 
the liberty of his country in 1544, and the states made the crown 
hereditary in his family. 

The most remarkable events during the reigns of his successors 
are the following: Gustavus Adolphus, a most illustrious prince, 
was killed at the battle of Lutzen in 1532 ; his daughter Christina 
resigned the crown in favour of his cousin, Charles Gustavus; 
Charles XII. one of the most extraordinary men that the world 
ever saw, closed his mortal career at the siege of Fredrickshall, 
in 1718 ; Gustavus III. though he had sworn to preserve the 
liberties of the Swedes, in violation of his oath rendered himself 
absolute, and was assassinated at a masked ball in 1792. On his 
death, his son Gustavus IV. ascended the throne, but was after¬ 
wards deposed, and his uncle called to reign in his stead; while 
one of the principal generals of the French empire, Bernadotte, 
was invested with the title of Crown Prince. At the death of the 
king in 1838, Bernadotte was unanimously declared king. 

Poland, formerly an elective monarchy under John Sobieski, 
the greatest of its sovereigns, once made a distinguished figure 
among the European powers. It was partitioned, in 1795, under 
the reign of Stanislaus Augustus, by the courts of Russia, Prussia, 
and Austria; and since that time has undergone farther changes. 
Having in 1833 attempted to throw off the despotic power of 


350 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Russia, the Poles were unable to meet the overwhelming force 
brought against them by that power, and after repeated defeats 
have been at length almost blotted out from the scale of nations. 

• 

Prussia, formerly a marquisate, and then an electorate, was 
raised to a regal government, in 1701, by Frederic, son of 
Frederic William, surnamed the Great, who had paved the way 
to the attainment of this dignity, and who was succeeded by his 
son of the same name, a wise and politic prince. 

Frederic William was succeeded by his son Frederic II. a 
great and warlike king, who filled Europe with the terror of his 
arms, while he cultivated the arts of peace occasionally with no 
less success. He left the throne to his nephew, Frederic 
William II. a weak and unprincipled prince; who, dying in 1797, 
was succeeded by Frederic William III.: the protracted reign of 
this prince since the overthrow of the French in Europe has 
proved an eminent blessing to his country. 

Russia, formerly known by the old name of Muscovy, is 
comparatively a new country, and did not reach any considerable 
degree of civilization till about a century ago ; though when pro¬ 
perly governed, its power and resources entitle it to a high rank 
among the European nations. 

The title of Czar of this country was first assumed by John 
Basilowitz in 1486, after having liberated Russia from the 
dominion of the Tartars. 

From this period we read only of tyrannical governors and 
barbarous subjects, during a succession of reigns ; for it was not 
till the time of Peter the Great that Russia began to assume its 
consequence. That he might improve his people, and instruct them 
in the knowledge and arts of other nations, this prince travelled 
into different countries of Europe, and worked as a common ship- 
carpenter both in Holland and England. He was the first that 
assumed the title of Emperor; he built Petersburg, which he 
made the capital instead of Moscow ; extended his dominions by 
various conquests ; and, in a word, was one of the most extra¬ 
ordinary men that ever appeared on the theatre of the world. 

His successor was his widow Catharine, whom he had promoted 
to his throne, though a poor peasant, on account of the talents 
she displayed; and she proved worthy of his choice. 

Catharine was succeeded by Peter II. grandson of Peter the 
Great, who performed nothing very remarkable ; he was fol¬ 
lowed by Anne Duchess of Courland, an empress of considerable 
energy of character, and whose reign was successful. 


HISTORY. 


851 


The successor to Anne was John, son to her niece Catharine, 
who being deposed and murdered in 1740, Elizabeth, second 
daughter of Peter the Great, was elevated to the throne, and 
swayed the sceptre with glory. 

Elizabeth was succeeded by her nephew, the duke of Holstein, 
who took the title of Peter III. but was soon deposed by his 
consort Catharine, and put to death. 

A faction which she had taken care to form, then raised 
Catharine, the second of that name, to the throne, which she 
filled with glory, so far as conquest and national improvements 
warrant the expression; but her vices as a woman were degrading 
to her sex, and the policy by which her relation with foreign 
powers was regulated was often detestable. Yet it must be ob¬ 
served, that Russia has generally been most fortunate under female 
reigns. 

The successor to Catharine II. was her son, Paul Petrowitz, 
who, from natural weakness, or depravity of heart, acting the part 
of a capricious tyrant, was deposed and murdered in 1801. 

His son Alexander Paulowitz succeeded him, and made a 
conspicuous figure in the politics of Europe. In 1812 he joined 
the coalition against the French ruler, after the peace of Tilsit; 
and being pursued by Buonaparte to Moscow, saved his country by 
the sacrifice of that city. Alexander died in 1825, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by Nicholas, the present emperor, under whose government 
the empire is expanding itself in every direction. 

Turkey. —The Turks and Huns, who were descendants of the 
ancient Scythians, having established themselves in a tract of Asia 
called Georgia, or Turcomania, Othman, one of their princes, 
to whom the Ottoman empire owes its name and establishment, 
seized on Bithynia; and fixing the seat of his government at 
Prusa, assumed the title of Sultan in 1300. 

The religion of the Turks is Mahometism, so called from 
Mahomet, an impostor, born at Mecca, in Arabia, and who, about 
the year of Christ 622, declared himself the greatest and last of 
the prophets that God would send: and by promising his followers 
the speedy conquest and possession of this world, and a paradise of 
delight in the next, but more particularly by the the sword, he 
extended his influence. His tenets are now professed, not only 
in Turkey, but in Arabia, Persia, India, Barbary, Egypt, and, 
in short, over the fairest portion of the old world. 

The Janizaries, who are so often mentioned in Turkish history, 
were the guards of tne sultan’s person: they were established by 
Amurath, grandson of Othman. 


852 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Amurath was succeeded by his son Bajazet, surnamed Ilderim, 
or the Thunderbolt, who, after gaining many splendid victories, 
was at last defeated and taken prisoner by Timur Bee, or Tamer¬ 
lane, a prince of the Tartars. 

The sultan Mahomet II. justly named the Great, besieged and 
took Constantinople, which has since been the seat of the Turkish 
empire: and thus put an end to the eastern empire of the 
Romans. 

Selim I. was a warlike prince, who extended the limits of the 
empire by the conquest of Egypt, and several countries of the 
east. 

Solyman II. celebrated in history, and who received the appel¬ 
lation of the Magnificent, was unquestionably one of the greatest 
and most accomplished of all the sultans. He conquered the 
island of Rhodes, and added Hungary to his dominions, though 
not permanently. Selim II. his son and successor, distinguished 
himself likewise by besieging and taking Cyprus and Tunis. 

Amurath II. extended his dominions in various quarters; but 
with him the general good fortune and power of the Turks seem 
to have declined, for since that time, in the reigns of Mahomet V. 
and Mustapha III., the Russians have prevailed, and considerable 
sacrifices of territory have been made. 

There have also been many recent revolutions in Turkey. 
Selim III. who had filled the throne from 1789, was deposed by 
Mustapha IY. in 1807; who, by another revolution in 1808, 
was put to death, Selim was killed, and the late sultan Mahmoud 
raised to the throne. This prince, by his wise policy, improved 
the condition and prospects of the empire, but his recent death 
is likely to renew those scenes of anarchy and confusion to which 
this empire has always been subject on the demise of the 
sovereign. 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

The origin of the early inhabitants of Great Britain is not to 
be traced with any degree of certainty ; the early history of this 
country being extremely vague and romantic. The most general, 
and indeed only probable opinion respecting it is, that Britain was 
peopled at various times from different parts of the continent of 
Europe; but the precise time when the first settlement com¬ 
menced is totally unknown. The earliest authentic account is, 
that a colony of the subjects of Teutar, King of the Celtse, 
embarking from their own coast in France, landed and settled 
without opposition on the coast of Great Britain. Their object 


HTSTOItY. 


353 


was that of increasing and extending their commerce, to which 
they were induced and encouraged by their sovereign, who, on 
account of his attachment to the commercial interests of the 
people, was styled mer-cur , or merchant; and hence we have the 
name of merchant. 

The next people that established themselves in Britain were the 
Belgae, a colony from the province of Bretagne, in the north of 
France : the Celtae and the Belgse were two branches of the 
Gauls, who were supposed to have been descended from Gom'cr, 
the son of Japheth, youngest son of Noah. 

The ancient Britons were, in general, tall, well-proportioned, 
and robust; they stained their bodies with a sea-weed, called 
woad, which not only defended in winter the pores of the skin 
from the inclemency of the weather, but gave them also a formi¬ 
dable and tremendous aspect; in their manners they were con¬ 
sidered a brave, warlike, and generous people, and particularly 
remarkable for their honesty and sincerity. 

Their habitations were a sort of huts, or cottages, sometimes 
formed of boughs, in the nature of arbours, and sometimes of 
mud and clay, according to the season of the year, and were 
generally covered with turf. Their towns and villages consisted 
of a number of these huts, irregularly placed at small distances 
from each other, and commonly situate in woods for the convenience 
of pursuing their favourite diversion of hunting. 

The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Csesar, 55 
years before Christ. At first the Britons opposed them, and 
several battles ensued, but the Britons being defeated were 
compelled to sue for peace; yet, after a short campaign, Ceesar 
was obliged to withdraw into Gaul, whence he came. 

In the following summer he returned with a great increase of 
force ; an army of 20,000 foot, a considerable body of horse, and 
a fleet of 800 ships. 

The Britons, under Cassibelaunus, opposed the second landing 
of Caesar, but the contesCwas vain, for Caesar advanced into the 
country, burnt Verulamium, the capital of Cassibelaunus. 
After forcing the Britons to submit to a yearly tribute, he withdrew 
his forces to the continent, and the Britons remained in quiet for 
nearly a century. 

The next Roman emperor that undertook to conquer Britain 
was Claudius Caesar, but he did not complete his purpose. The 
British king Caractacus made a noble stand against him, though 
lie was at last taken captive, and carried a prisoner to Rome. 

Boadicea, queen of the Iccni (the inhabitants of Norfolk and 
Suffolk), also opposed the Romans with great personal valour, but 

z z 


\ 


654 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION 

she was at last defeated ; and in one great battle, a.d. 61 , lost 80,000 
of her men. 

Britain was not completely conquered till 30 years afterwards, 
in the reign of Titus, by Julius Agricola, who introduced the 
Roman arts and most of the improvements of that nation. 

At length, a. d. 448, the Roman empire being much on the 
decline, was not able to preserve so distant a province, but 
completely abandoned it, after having kept possession of it for 
400 years. 

When the Romans withdrew their forces, the Piets and Cale¬ 
donians, the ancient inhabitants of Scotland, ravaged and desolated 
the country. The Britons first applied for aid to the Romans, but 
without success ; they afterwards solicited succour and protection 
from the Saxons, who complied with the request by sending an 
army, a. d. 450, commanded by Hengist aud Horsa. 

The Saxons were successful against the Scots, but they had no 
sooner driven them out, than they turned their thoughts to the 
entire reduction of the Britons; and receiving large reinforce¬ 
ments of their countrymen, they reduced England under their 
power, and founded the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy. Many of the 
Britons, rather than submit to the conquerors, retired into Wales, 
then called Cambria, where they were sheltered by the inaccessible 
mountains of that country. 

The Saxon heptarchy included that part of Great Britain 
called England: the several kingdoms of the heptarchy and their 
founders were as follow :— 

Kent, founded by Hengist 
Sussex, - - - Ella 

Wessex, - - Cerdic 

Essex, - - - Erehenwin 
Northumberland, Ida 

East Anglia, - Uffa » 

Mercia, - - - Crida. 

The most renowned defenders of * the Britons against the 
Saxons were the celebrated Ambrosius, and the famous king 
Arthur; the latter was killed in battle, about the year 546. The 
Saxon kingdoms did not continue long united : in a short time 
the chiefs disputed about their several rights, and after a series of 
wars, which continued more than two hundred years, the whole of 
the heptarchy fell, and became a conquest to the power of Egbert, 
King of Wessex, who caused himself to be crowned at Winches¬ 
ter, by the title of King of England, a. d. 827. 

The Danes often ravaged the coast of Britain during the reign 


HISTORY. 


355 


:>f Egbert, but were as often defeated, till his son Ethel wolf suc¬ 
ceeded him, in 830, during whose feeble reign the Danes returned, 
and continued their depredations with but little interruption. In this 
reign the Piets, so formidable heretofore to the southern Britons, 
were entirely extirpated by their neighbours the Scots, after a 
long and terrible war between them. 

• Ethelwolf left his dominions and royal power to his second 
son, Ethelbert; after him to his third son, Ethelred. 

During both these reigns the Danes continued their incursions, 
made themselves masters of Northumberland, and several other 
parts of England, but were strongly opposed by Ethelred, who 
received a mortal wound in a battle fought near Wittingham, a. d. 
872, in the sixth year of his reign. 

Alfred the Great succeeded to the crown of England in the year 
872, when the Danes were in the very heart of his dominions, and all 
the seaports were filled with their fleets ; after several engagements 
with various success, he was obliged to dismiss his very attendants ; 
and having committed his wife and children to the care of his 
trusty subjects, disguised himself, and lived concealed in the 
little island of Athelnay, in Somersetshire. At length the Danes, 
finding they had no enemy to oppose them, seemed to grow neg¬ 
ligent. Alfred, on this occasion, resolving to be satisfied of it, 
boldly entered the Danish camp in the disguise of a musician, and 
even staid there several days; then returning to his friends, he 
secretly assembled his troops, attacked the Danes, and routed 
them with great slaughter. Those who escaped fled to a castle, 
but were soon compelled to surrender to Alfred, who permitted 
them to depart on condition that their leader, Guthrum, should 
embrace Christianity, with which they complied, and Alfred gave 
Guthrum the government of East Anglia, in Essex. 

Alfred, once more seated on the 1 throne, proved himself, with 
scarcely an exception, the best king that ever reigned. He 
founded the university of Oxford ; divided England into shires 
and counties; established a national militia; encouraged learn¬ 
ing and learned men ; invented a way of measuring time by 
candles, which were made to burn eight hours each, having in his 
time no clocks or watches; and made the navy very respectable, 
lie reigned twenty-nine years and a half, and died Octo¬ 
ber 28, .901. 

He was succeeded by his son, called Edward the Elder, who 
fought several battles with the Danes and completely routed them ; 
he afterwards marched against the Welsh, over whom he gained a 
decisive victory, and compelled the Welsh king, Rees ap Madoc, 
to sue for peace, and promise to pay an annual tribute for the 


356 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


future. He reigned 24< years, died in 925, and was interred at 
Winchester. He was succeeded by his son Athelstan, who obtained 
a great victory over the Danes in Northumberland, after which he 
reigned in tranquillity. He died in the year 941, and was succeeded 
by his brother Edmund I. Soon after Edmund began his reign, 
the Danes prepared for a revolt, and recovered Northumberland, 
Cumberland, and Mercia; but these places were again retaken by 
Edmund. He was stabbed at a feast in Gloucestershire, by Leolf, a 
robber, whom he had caused to be banished : he was succeeded by 
his brother Edred, in 948. 

The Danes, according to their usual custom upon the accession 
of a new king, revolted, and gained over to their side Malcolm, 
king of Scotland; but Edred, marching against them, obliged 
Malcolm to sue for peace. He reigned nine years, died in 958, 
and was succeeded by Edwy, the son of Edmund. 

In the reign of Edwy, Dunstan, a proud abbot, who pretended 
to be a saint, raised a faction against him, which became so 
powerful, that Edwy was obliged to divide the kingdom with his 
brother Edgar. He died after a reign of about four years, and 
was buried at Winchester. 

Edwy was succeeded by his brother Edgar, in 959, whose 
reign was one continued calm, without any wars or commotions. 
He reigned sixteen years, died in 975, aged 81, and was interred 
at Glastonbury. He was succeeded by his son Edward, who was 
murdered at the instigation of his mother-in-law. 

Edward was succeeded by his brother Ethelred II. son of 
Edgar and Elfrida. In this reign the Danes again invaded 
England; they at first landed at Southampton, in 981 , and for 
ten years afterwards there was nothing but plunderings, conflagra¬ 
tions, murders, and every misery imaginable. At first he purchased 
their absence by a great sum of money, but soon after, all the Danes 
who resided in England, excepting those in East Anglia and 
Mercia, were by his orders massacred in one day, November 18, 
1002. Sweyn, king of Denmark, when he heard of this bloody 
act, declared he would never rest till he had revenged so monstrous 
an outrage. He therefore equipped a fleet of 200 ships, and 
soon arriving in England, made great havoc among the Britons, 
obliged them to pay him a large sum of money, and compelled 
Ethelred to take refuge in the court of his brother-in-law, 
Richard, duke of Normandy, 1018. 

Shortly after, Sweyn dying, the nobility invited Ethelred to 
return ; but he did not long enjoy the throne, for Canute, the suc¬ 
cessor of Sweyn, proved to be as powerful an enemy as his pre¬ 
decessor. 


A 


HISTORY. 35 * 

Ethel red reigned thirty-seven years, died in 1016, and was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son Edmund, sometimes called Ironside, on account 
of his hardy valour. Numerous contentions happened in this reign 
between the English and the Danes under Canute, who, with 
Edmund, agreed to a participation of the kingdom. Edmund, 
during his short reign, exhibited proofs of the most undaunted 
courage, invincible fortitude, consummate prudence, and sublime 
generosity. He was murdered in 1017, at Oxford, by two of his 
chamberlains, and was interred at Glastonbury, thus making way 
for the succession of Canute the Dane to the crown of England. 
With Edmund the Saxon monarchy in a manner ended, having 
lasted 190 years from Egbert's establishment, 432 from the foun¬ 
dation of the heptarchy, and 568 from the arrival of Hengist. 

Canute the Great succeeded Edmund Ironside, and was pro¬ 
claimed king of England in 1017 ; he divided England into four 
parts; Mercia, Northumberland, East Anglia, and Wessex, and 
made the government of England such that every person should 
be treated alike. He reigned eight years, died in the year 1086, 
and left three sons ; Sweyn, who had Norway ; Harold, England; 
and Hardicanute, Denmark. 

Harold died in 1089, without issue, in the fourth year of his 
reign, and was succeeded by his brother Hardicanute, who brought 
with him to England forty Danish ships; soon after he was 
crowned he laid a heavy tax upon the nation to pay his fleet, which 
he sent back to Denmark. This occasioned great murmuring and 
discontent among the people. He was brutally cruel and vindic¬ 
tive, and infamous for gluttony and drunkenness ; he died suddenly, 
June 8, 1041, in the third year of his reign, as he was carousing 
at the wedding of a Danish lord at Lambeth. 

The English rejoiced, and kept the day of his death as a 
holiday, for several centuries after, by the name of Hoctide, or 
Hog’s tide. With him ended the monarchy of the Danes in 
England, after it had lasted about 26 years, but had harassed the 
kingdom 240 vears. 

Hardicanute was succeeded by Edward the Confessor, son of 
Ethelred and Emma, June 8, 1041, who had spent great part of 
his life in Normandy. During his reign Ire abolished for ever the 
tax called Danegelt, which amounted to £40,000 a year, and had 
been paid for 88 years; he built Westminster abbey; and col¬ 
lected the Saxon laws and customs into one body, which weret hence 
called by his name. 

Edward was succeeded by Harold IT. son of Earl Godwin, 
who had all the qualifications requisite for forming a great prince, 
but fell in his country's cause, at the battle of Hastings after a 


358 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 

turbulent reign of nine months and nine days; and with him 
totally ended the empire of the Anglo-Saxons in England, which 
had begun in the person of Hengist, above 600 years before. 

William I. king of England and duke of Normandy, was 
one of the greatest generals of the eleventh century. He was 
born at Falaise, and was the natural soil of Robert, duke of 
Normandy, by Arlotte, a furrier s daughter. After the death of 
Robert, which happened in 1035, William, who was his only son, 
succeeded Him. Some time after he paid a visit to Edward the 
Confessor, who treated him with great respect, and took a tour 
with him through England. 

Edward the Confessor, dying without issue in 1065, appointed 
him his heir, on which William sent to demand the crown ; and 
soon after landed at Pevensev, in Sussex, with a powerful army, 
and thence proceeding to Hastings, built a strong fort. Harold, 
the reigning prince, marched to oppose him, and the bloody battle 
of Hastings ensued, the 14th of October, 1066, in which William 
obtained a complete victory, though he had three horses killed 
under him, and lost a great number of his troops : and Harold 
was slain, with many of the nobility, and about 60,000 soldiers. 

The first act' of sovereignty exercised by William I. after his 
coronation was the seizure of Harold’s treasure, which he found 
amassed at Winchester. Part of this he distributed among the 
principal officers of his army ; part was given to the churches and 
monasteries ; and a large share was sent to the pope. 

He instituted the courts of chancery and exchequer ; but at the 
same time disarmed his English subjects, and forbade their having 
any light in their houses after eight o’clock at night, when a bell 
rung, called curfew, or coverfire , at the sound of which all per¬ 
sons were obliged to put out their fires and candles. He repulsed 
several invasions; obliged the Scots to preserve the peace they 
had broken ; compelled the Welsh to pay him tribute ; refused 
to pay homage to the pope; built the tower of London ; and 
caused all public acts to be made in the Norman tongue. He 
likewise caused all England to be surveyed and rated, and had the 
men numbered in a work called Doomsday-book, which is still extant. 

He resolved to chastise the French, who invaded Normandy, 
and after that to reduce his son Robert: but Robert no sooner 
found that he was engaged with his father, than lie dutifully sub¬ 
mitted to him, notwithstanding his bein r victorious. Some time 
after, William declared war against Philip I. king of France ; 
burnt Nantes, and ravaged the country with fire and sword to the 
very gates of Paris; but approaching too near the flames of 


HISTORY. 


359 


Nantes, the heat of the fire, together with the warmth of the 
season, threw him into a fever, which being increased by a fall from 
his horse in his return to Rouen, he died at a village near that city, 
the 9th of September, 1087, in the 64th year of his age, after a 
reign of fifty-two years in Normandy, and twenty-one in England. 
He was interred at Caen in Normandy. 

William was a prince of great courage, capacity, and ambition ; 
he was politic, cruel, vindictive, and rapacious ; stern and haughty 
in his deportment; reserved and jealous in his disposition. 

William II. surnamed Rufus, or Red, from the colour of his 
hair, and his florid complexion, was the second surviving son of 
William the Conqueror, and succeeded his father the 27th of 
September, 1087. He was then 30 years of age; at the same 
time Robert, his elder brother, succeeded, by his father's will, 
to the duchy of Normandy ; but he resolved to assert his right of 
primogeniture to the crown of England; and several of the 
Norman nobility espoused his cause. William, however, defeated 
a body of his troops in Kent, and soon after prevailed on him to 
conclude a peace. 

The two brothers then made war on Henry, their youngest 
brother, whom they besieged in Mount St. Michael, where the 
king riding one morning unattended, fell in with a party of 
H enry's soldiers, and endeavoured to force his way through them : 
but was dismounted, and a soldier was going to dispatch him, when 
he saved his life by exclaiming, Hold, fellow, I am the king of 
England. v> Upon this the man dropped his sword, raised the 
monarch from the ground, and received from him the order of 
knighthood. 

The brothers being soon reconciled, William turned his arms 
against Scotland, and defeated the army of king Malcolm, who 
with his son had been killed just before in an ambush laid by 
Mowbray, governor of Northumberland. But Mowbray, finding 
soon after that the king neglected to reward his services, joined 
with other noblemen to set the crowm on the head of Stephen, 
grandson to William the Conqueror. The king marched into 
Yorkshire, reduced Bamborough, took Mowbray prisoner, and put 
an end to the rebellion. But while he was hunting in the New 
Forest, he was accidentally wounded by an arrow, shot by Walter 
Tyrrel, his particular favourite, and immediately expired, on the 
2d of August, 1100, aged 44, after a reign of thirteen years. 
It is said, so little respect was paid to his body, that it was con¬ 
veyed in a coal-cart to Winchester, and was soon after interred, in 
a very private manner, in the church of St. Swithin. 

William was equally void of learning, principle, and humanity; 


360 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


he was haughty, passionate, brutal, profligate, and ungrateful. 
Having no legitimate issue, the crown devolved to his brother 
Henry. 

Henry I. surnamed Beauclerc, on account of his great learn¬ 
ing, was the son of William the Conqueror, and the youngest 
brother of William Rufus and Robert. His engaging person 
and address, his courage, learning, and eloquence, have been highly 
celebrated. Robert being in Palestine when William Rufus was 
killed, in 1100, Henry took advantage of his absence, and caused 
himself to be crowned king of England, on August 5, 1100; but 
Robert, at his return, was acknowledged duke of Normandy, and 
landed at Portsmouth to make good his right to the crown of 
England. However, Henry came to an agreement with him, by 
consenting to pay him an annual tribute of 3000 marks. 

This tribute being but ill paid, they rekindled the war in a 
short time after when Henry landed in Normandy, ren¬ 
dered himself master of that duchy, after the battle of Tinche- 
bray, fought on the 27th of September, 1106, in which Robert 
was defeated and taken prisoner; after which Henry had the 
cruelty to cause his eyes to be put out, and confined him twenty 
years in CardifFe castle, in Glamorganshire. He died the 1st of 
December, 1135, aged 68, leaving his crown to Maud, or Matilda, 
his daughter, but was succeeded by Stephen, his nephew. 

Henry was of a middle stature, and robust make, with dark 
brown hair, and blue serene eyes. He had great courage and for¬ 
titude, but was vindictive, cruel, rigid, and implacable. 

Henry I. was succeeded by Stephen of Blois, nephew to Henry, 
and son of Adela, the fourth daughter of William the Conqueror. 
Though Stephen had taken the oath of allegiance to Maud, or 
Matilda, the daughter of Henry I. in case he died without male 
issue, he found means to supplant her, and get the crown upon 
his own head. During his reign England was one continual scene 
of bloodshed and horror, from the contest between Maud, Stephen, 
and the barons ; at length it was agreed, that Stephen should enjoy 
the crown during his life, and then it should descend to young 
Henry, son of Maud. He reigned eighteen years, and died Oct. 
25, 1154, in the fiftieth year of his age. 

Henry II. surnamed Plantagenet, the son of Maud and Geoffrey 
Plantagenet, and grandson of the count of Anjou, succeeded 
Stephen. In his reign lived the celebrated Fair Rosamond, 
daughter of Lord Clifford, who was his mispress ; her beauty 
and fate have rendered her name famous. Thomas a Becket was 
also a remarkable personage at this time: lie had been raised from a 
mean station to be archbishop of Canterbury. Henry had seven 


HISTORY. 


861 


children, namely, Henry, Geoffrey, Richard, John, and three 
daughters ; the two younger sons succeeded. He died July 6, 
1186, in tlie fifty-seventh year of his age, and thirty-fifth of his 
reign. 

Henry IT. was succeeded by his son Richard, surnamed Coeur 
de Lion, or Lion-hearted. He was a man of great ability, wit, 
and generosity ; full of the heroic valour of the times, he went to 
Palestine, or the Holy Land, with the crusaders, and seemed to 
forget that he was king of England. Richard was the first who 
assumed the motto of “ God and my right, 11 and affixed it to his 
arms. It is said of him, that when he pardoned his brother John, 
after repeated treasons, he said, “ I forgive you, and wish I could 
as easily forget your injuries as you will my pardon. 11 He was shot 
at the siege of the castle of Chaluz, near Limoges, in France, 
and died eleven days after, on the 6th of April, 1199. 

John, surnamed Sans Terre, or Lack Land, succeeded. He 
appears not to have been possessed of one good quality, and to 
have been as unfortunate as he was weak. He was engaged in 
continued wars with the barons, and contests with the popes. 
He is accused of murdering his nephew Arthur, son of Geoffrey, 

the eldest son of Henrv II. and lawful heir to the crown. 

•/ 

Shakspeare has written a fine tragedy on this circumstance. The 
barons taking up arms against him, on account of his tyrannical 
conduct, he signed Magna Charta, so justly esteemed as the 
foundation of English liberty. It was a bill, or act of parliament, 
granting to the barons and citizens greater privileges than they 
had ever enjoyed before ; by this act the feudal law was abolished, 
and English freedom restored. He reigned seventeen years, died 
Oct. 18, 1216, and was buried in the cathedral at Worcester. 

Henry III. who was born at Winchester, succeeded to the 
crown. He was as weak a monarch as ever sat on a throne ; a 
narrow genius, without courage or conduct, perhaps occasioned by 
his succeeding to the throne so young, he being only eleven years 
old when his father died. In his reign the Court of Common 
Pleas was first instituted, aldermen were first appointed, and the 
first regular parliament was called. The reign of Henry is the 
longest upon record. He died November 16, 1272, having 
reigned fifty-six years, and was interred in the abbey church of 
Westminster, near the shrine of Edward the Confessor. 

Edward I. proved himself to be a great and wise king. He 
subdued Wales, and annexed it to England; he also carried on a 
war in Scotland with great success; and lie was not less careful 
of extending the commerce than the glory of the people; but he 
was very cruel to the Jews, for no less than 15,000 were in his 


862 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


reign robbed of their effects, and banished the kingdom ; since 
which time very few Jews have lived in this country. The eldest 
son of Edward I. was born at Carnarvon, in Wales, and at the 
age of seventeen was invested with the principality of that countiy. 
Prom that time the king's eldest son has been styled Prince of 
Wales. Edward I. reigned thirty-four years, and died at Carlisle, 
July 7, 1307, aged sixty-eight. In his reign, geography and the 
use of the globes were introduced ; tallow candles and coals were 
first common; windmills invented, and wine was first sold, though 
only as a cordial, in apothecaries’ shops. 

Edward II., surnamed Carnarvon, a weak prince, was cruelly 
murdered by the order of his queen, in Berkeley castle, a.d. 
1327. He was succeeded by his son Edward, Prince of Wales, 
who was born at Windsor. 

Edward III. was a wise king, and one of the most renowned 
monarchs that sat on the English throne. He had nine children, 
five sons and four daughters ; the most celebrated was Edward, 
the eldest, called the Black Prince, from the colour of his armour; 
he died before his father. The other sons were Lionel, duke 
of Clarence ; John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster ; Edmund, duke 
of York; and Thomas, duke of Gloucester. 

The principal events in this reign were the battles of Cressy and 
Poictiers ; the defeat of the Scots; the surrender of Calais to 
the English; and a great naval victory over the French. The 
famous battle of Cressy was fought between the French and 
English, in 1346; the French army consisted of 120,000 men, 
out of which about 37,000 were slain, besides many prisoners, and 
the others put to flight. The English army consisted of 30,000 
men. The most celebrated among the slain was the king of 
Bohemia. The crest of this monarch was three ostrich feathers, 
and his motto these German words, Ich dien, I serve; which 
the then prince of Wales, the Black Prince, adopted in me¬ 
morial of this great victory, and his successors have borne them 
ever since. 

Richard II., the son of Edwafd the Black Prince, was only 
eleven years old when he came to the throne. He was admired, 
while a boy, as having a good and open spirit; but when he grew 
up to be a man, he became weak and effeminate. He was deprived 
of his crown by Henry, duke of Lancaster, and starved to death 
in Pomfret castle. 

The principal events in the reign of Richard II. were, an 
insurrection occasioned by a tax of one shilling, ordered to be 
paid by every person above fifteen, making no difference between 
the rich and common people ; and the usurpation of Henry, duke 


ITTSTORY. 


86,1 

oi FLancaster, wliicli gave rise to tlie numerous and fatal contests 
of the White and Red Rose, or the houses of York and- Lan¬ 
caster. Cards were invented also in the time of Richard IT. for 
Charles VI. king of France, called the well-beloved ; he was 
insane the greater part of his life, and during the intervals of 
reason, cards were produced as an amusement for him. 

Henry IV., duke of Lancaster, surnamed Rolingbroke, succeeded 
Richard II. He was the eldest son of John of Gaunt, duke of 
Lancaster, fourth son of Edward IV. He was crowned Oct. 13, 
1399, and ascended the throne upon the forced resignation of 
Richard II. 

In his reign lived Chaucer and Gower, both English poets; 
and William of Wickham, bishop of Winchester. It is recorded 
of the eldest son of Henry, when prince of Wales, that Sir 
William Gascoine sent him to prison for contempt of his authority. 
One of his dissolute companions being brought before this magis¬ 
trate for some offence, Henry, who was present, was so provoked 
at the issue of the trial, that he struck the judge in open court. 
Sir William, fully sensible of the reverence due to his authority, 
committed him to prison; and when the king heard of it, he 
exclaimed, “ Happy is the king who has a subject endowed with 
courage to execute the laws upon such an offender; and still more 
happy in having a son willing to submit to such chastisement. 
Henry had four sons and two daughters, and was succeeded by 
his eldest son Henry.” 

Henry V. was so courageous that no danger could startle, and 
no difficulty hinder; nor was his policy inferior to his courage. 
He was chaste, temperate, and modest, and without an equal in 
the art of war, policy, and government. 

The principal event in his reign was the conquest of France, 
which he undertook as soon as he came to the throne. It was 
Henry who gained the celebrated victory of Agincourt. No 
battle was ever more fatal to the French, by the number of princes 
and nobility slain and taken prisoners. Henry was afterwards 
declared heir to the French monarchy. He had only one child, 
the prince of Wales, who was not a year old when his father died. 
The queen, after the death of Henry, married Sir Owen Tudor, 
a Welsh gentleman, said to have been descended from the princes 
in that country, by whom she had two sons. 

The most remarkable events of the reign of Henry VI. were 
the loss of France, and the dreadful contests between the houses 
of Lancaster and York, called the factions of the Red and White . 
Roses; that of Lancaster being termed the Red Rose, and York 
the White. The duke of York was killed, but his son Edward 


364 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


continued the claim, and routed Henry VI. who was confined in 
the Tower, and most probably murdered in 1475, on whose death 
Edward ascended the throne. 

Edward was brave, active, enterprising; but severe, revengeful, 
and luxurious. In this reign printing was first introduced, and 
polite literature encouraged among the English, notwithstanding 
the civil war, which raged with great fury. He reigned twenty- 
two years, and died April 9, 1483, aged forty-one years, leaving 
six children, namely, two sons and four daughters. 

His eldest son, the prince of Wales, succeeded him at thirteen 
years of age, as Edward V. As he came to the throne so young, 
and was either murdered or carried out of the kingdom soon after 
his accession, his character cannot be known. Some say he was 
smothered in the Tower with his brother, the duke of York, in 
1483. 

Richard III., duke of Gloucester, surnamed Crook-back, who 
was brother to Edward IV., was proclaimed king of England, June 
SOth, 1483, and was killed at the famous battle of Bosworth, con¬ 
tending for the kingdom with Henry, then earl of Richmond, Aug. 
24, 1485, after a reign of two years. He was the supposed mur¬ 
derer of his two nephews, and was a compound, both in mind and 
person, of cruelty and deformity ; with his death ended the line of 
York. 

Henry VII., earl of Richmond, was crowned in Bosworth field 
immediately after the battle. Henry was the son of Edmund 
Tudor, earl of Richmond, and of Margaret, a descendant from John 
of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. He, by marrying a daughter of 
Edward IV., united the houses of York and Lancaster, and by that 
means put an end to the civil war. In this reign America was dis¬ 
covered by Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa ; shillings 
were first coined in England; and a passage to the East Indies 
discovered by the Portuguese. There was also a rebellion headed 
by one Perkin, who pretended to be the son of Edward IV., but 
the prudence and sagacity of Henry defeated this and every other 
plot against his government. He reigned twenty-three years, died 
at Richmond, April 22, 1509, aged fifty-one, and was succeeded 
by his son Henry. 

Henry VIII. was learned, but obstinate, despotic, and cruel. 
In his reign the Reformation was begun ; and the famous battle 
of Elodden Field was fought, in which James IV., king of Scotland, 
with the flower of his nobility, fell. Henry had six wives—Cathe¬ 
rine, who was his brother’s widow, from whom he was divorced; 
Anne Boleyn, who was falsely accused and beheaded; Jane 
Seymour, who died in child-bed; Anne of Cleves, whom he dis- 




HISTORY. 365 

liked and divorced; Catherine Howard, who was beheaded ; and 
Catherine Parr, who survived him. He left three children : Edward 
prince of Wales, by Lady Jane Seymour, who succeeded him; 
Mary, his daughter by his first queen ; and Elizabeth, daughter of 
Anna Boleyn, afterwards queen. He died after a reign of thirty- 
seven years and nine months, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. 

Edward VI. succeeded his father at the age of nine years and 
three months, a.d. 1547. He was a very amiable, learned, and 
pious young man, and died July 1, 1553, in the sixteenth year of 
his age. He left the crown to Lady Jane Grey his cousin, who 
reigned only ten days, and was then deposed by Mary, Edward’s 
sister. 

Mary, the daughter of Llenry VIII. was crowned October 1, 
1553. She was extremely bigoted to the catholic religion ; also 
proud, imperious, and revengeful. She was married to Philip II., 
king of Spain. The most remarkable event in the reign of Mary 
was the persecution of the Protestants, great numbers of whom 
were burnt in Smithfield, Oxford, and other places, as heretics. 
Amongst the most remarkable were the bishops Latimer, Cranmer, 
Hooper, and Ridley. Calais, the only place that was left us in 
France, was also lost in her reign. Mary reigned about five 
years; she died November 17, 1558, aged forty-two, and was 
succeeded by her sister Elizabeth. 

Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn, 
and sister to Mary and Edward. She was a woman of great spirit, 
judgment, and address ; understood the dead and living languages, 
and had made a good proficiency in the sciences, as well as read in 
history ; but her putting Mary queen of Scots to death, is a great 
stain in her character. Mary, queen of Scots, was the daughter of 
James V. king of Scotland, and cousin to Elizabeth; she was famed 
for her beauty and misfortunes. She was prisoner in England 
eighteen years, and was at length beheaded at Fotheringay castle, 
in Northamptonshire. 

The principal events in the reign of Elizabeth were, the de¬ 
struction of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, which was intended for 
the conquest of England, and perhaps was the largest fleet ever 
fitted out by any nation; the Reformation, a most important event, 
which fixed the present religious establishment of the country; 
and the discovery of Virginia in America. Elizabeth reigned 
forty-four years ; she died March 24, 1603, aged sixty-nine and 
was succeeded by James I. of England and VI. of Scotland. 

The principal event in this reign was the gunpowder plot, which 
was a scheme of the Roman catholics to blow up both houses of 
parliament, by laying a train of gunpowder under them, when the 


m) 


IDLING MANS COMPANION. 


king, princes, lords, and commons should be assembled,“Nov. 5, 
1605. The conspirators had hired a cellar beneath the parliament 
house, under a pretence of a store-house for coals, in which they 
placed thirty-six barrels of gunpowder ; those they covered over 
with coals and faggots, and one Guy Faux, who was to have set 
fire to the train, was actually taken in the cellar with a dark lantern, 
tinder box, and matches in his pocket. The plot was discovered, 
by an anonymous letter being sent, through private friendship, 
from one of the conspirators to Lord Mounteagle, in order to pre¬ 
vent his going that day to parliament, and thus to avoid the dread¬ 
ful catastrophe. James was king of Scotland 36 years before he 
succeeded to the English crown, and 21 years king of England. 
He died a. d. 1625, aged 58. He was crowned king of Scotland 
when only a year old. 

Charles I., second son of James I. of England, succeeded 
his father, March 27, 1625. The most striking events in this 
reign were the wars between Charles and his Parliament; the exe¬ 
cution of Lord Strafford and Archbishop Laud, and afterwards 
that of the king himself, who was taken prisoner by the Par¬ 
liament. 

Oliver Cromwell was chosen protector of England in 1653, being 
four years and three months after the commencement of the com¬ 
monwealth, which before was managed by the parliament. He 
was protector for five years, and died Sept. 3. 1658. He was suc¬ 
ceeded in the protectorship by his eldest son, Richard, who, however, 
retained the situation only three months. 

Oliver Cromwell was a man of great courage, but an enthusiast in 
the highest degree. The principal events of his time were, a war 
with the Dutch, who were defeated ; Jamaica conquered and made 
an English province. The great poet Milton lived in the time of 
Cromwell, to whom he was Latin secretary. 

Charles II ., son of Charles I., on July 3, 1646, went from Jersey 
into France, and remained abroad till May 1660, when he arrived 
in London, and was proclaimed king of England the 29th of the 
same month. 

The principal events of his reign were, the great fire in London 
in 1666, and the Plague the year before ; in this reign the Royal 
Society was established. Several men of genius flourished; Boyle, 
Dryden, Otway, Butler, Temple, Waller, Cowley, Halley, and the 
earl of Arundel. Charles II. reigned 24 years, and died February 
1685, in the 55th vear of his age, and was succeeded by his brother 
James. 

James II. was a bigot to the Romish religion, and fond of ar¬ 
bitrary power. In his reign the duke of Monmouth rebelled ; he 


HTSTOSY. 36^ 

was proclaimed king at Taunton, but being afterwards taken pri 
soner, was beheaded in London. The attempts of James II. to re¬ 
store the Roman catholic religion obliging him to abdicate the 
throne, he retired to France, where he died, 1701, leaving three 
children, James, Mary, and Anne. 

James having deserted the throne, the prince and princess oi 
Orange were declared joint sovereigns, July 13, 1689. William 
III. was the son of William, prince of Orange, and of Henrietta 
Maria, daughter of Charles I. He was born at the Hague, in 
Holland, in 1650, and was married to Mary, eldest daughter of 
James II. William was a great warrior, and a steady friend to 
the protestant religion, and civil liberty. Mary, though her father 
was a strong papist, was also a firm protestant; she was an excel¬ 
lent wife, and a truly pious woman. Her person was very handsome; 
she died before William, in 1694. William’s death was occasioned 
by a fall from his horse, 1702. He expired in the 52d year of his 
age, and the 13th of his reign. 

The principal events of this reign were, the battle of the Bovne, 
in Ireland, where king James II. was defeated ; the French fleet 
destroyed off La Hogue; and the Bank of England established. 
Newton, Locke, Tillotson, Prior, and Burnet, flourished in this 
reign. 

William and Mary had no children ; they were succeeded by 
Anne, second daughter of James II., who was married to Prince 
George, brother to the king of Denmark. Queen Anne is said 
to have possessed many excellent qualities. The principal events 
of her reign were, the battles of Blenheim, Ramillies, and several 
others, won by the great duke of Marlborough ; the defeat of the 
combined fleets by Sir George Rooke; Gibraltar taken by the 
English; and the union of England and Scotland, under the title 
of Great Britain, 1707. Queen Anne reigned twelve years and a 
half. The most celebrated literary characters in her reign were. 
Pope, Swift, Congreve, Rowe, Bolingbroke, Shaftesbury, Addison, 
and Steele. 

George I., who was previously elector of Hanover and Lunen- 
burgh, and a descendant of James I., succeeded to Anne ; he was 
a good king, and an enemy to every species of tyranny. The 
principal events of this reign were, the rebellion of the Scots, 
in favour of the Pretender, son of James II., which was soon 
quelled, and the Pretender obliged to retire to France, 1717; 
the electorate of Hanove-r annexed to the British crown; inocu¬ 
lation first introduced into England, and successfully tried upon 
two condemned criminals, who were pardoned on submitting to 
the operation. 


368 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 

George I. died in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and the 
thirteenth of his reign, 1727. 

George I. was succeeded by his son George II., who reigned 
from 1727 to 1760. In this reign the river Thames was frozen, 
and a fair held on it, 1740 ; the Scots again rebelled in favour of 
the Pretender, but were defeated in 1747 ; Westminster bridge 
was built; Admiral Anson took a Spanish ship, with treasures to 
the amount of ^1,500,000; Quebec was taken, and General 
Wolfe killed. 

George II. had seven children, two sons and five daughters 
the eldest son, Frederick, prince of Wales, dying before his father, 
his grandson, George William Frederick, ascended the throne of 
England. 

George III succeeded his grandfather October 25, 1760, being 
then twenty-four years of age. He was married to Charlotte 
Sophia, Princess of Mecklenburgh Strelitz, and they were crowned 
September 20, 1761. In the early part of his reign, war was 
declared with America, which led to that country eventually 
throwing off its allegiance to Great Britain, 1776. The levying 
of certain duties to be payable by the American colonies in aid 
of the public revenues being resisted, it became necessary to use 
measures, which brought forward an open defiance on the part of 
that country to the restraint of the British government. 

The revolution in France commenced in the year 1786, and 
for a long time France exhibited a continued scene of bloodshed, 
rapine, and misery, under a delusive idea of civil liberty being 
substituted for the old regal government; in which the kin<? 
Louis XVI., was made a sacrifice by the guillotine, together with 
the queen and many of the nobility, and innumerable other 
persons of every rank, who became objects of dislike to the various 
factions in power. The tranquillity of England was much disturbed 
by the French revolutions; for after the death of the king of 
Franee, England and Holland engaged in war with that country; 
Austria and Prussia, alarmed with the principles disseminated bv 
the French, had previously declared war against France in their 
own defence. The continental powers being defeated, and their 
kingdoms overrun by the French, they were obliged to make peace, 
and Great Britain was for a time left to contend alone with France. 

After that country had been successively in the power of 
various succeeding factions, a form of government was at length 
settled, under the dominion of three consuls, whereof the 
first, as chief, was Napoleon Buonaparte, a Corsican by birth, and 
a general in the French service, who afterwards altered the govern¬ 
ment, and caused himself to be declared emperor of France. 


HISTORY. 


369 


But previously to this the French had sent an expedition to subdue 
Egypt under Buonaparte. Their fleet was attacked in the bay of 
Alexandria, by Admiral Lord Nelson, who completely defeated 
them, with great loss of both ships and men; which memorable 
action was called the victory of the Nile. The French army 
also was beaten by Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who lost his life in 
the moment of victory. These great events at length obliged 
the enemy to abandon their views of Egypt. The war between 
England and France was brought to a conclusion in the year 
1802; but it was of short duration, for the restless ambition of 
the French ruler gave reason to suspect he was preparing for new 
aggressions,and disputes taking place between the two governments, 
war was resumed the following year. Soon after the renewal of 
hostilities, a great naval advantage was gained by this country at 
the ever memorable battle of Trafalgar, in which the undaunted 
hero, Admiral Lord Nelson, achieved a splendid victory, but 
unhappily for his country, he was himself slain. In testimony of 
grateful respect, his remains were honoured with* a public and 
splendid funeral in St. Paul’s church ; and his death was justly 
deplored as a national calamity. 

In the year 1807, England was solicited by Portugal and Spain 
to assist in defending those countries from the aggressions of the 
French ; and a large military force was sent over to them, under 
the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley, whose important services 
and talents enabled Portugal to free herself from her enemy, and 
whose subsequent achievements and successes at Bassora, Almeida. 
Albuera, Talavera, and Vittoria, in Spain, were principally instru¬ 
mental in obliging the French to evacuate that country likewise. 

The British government having obtained information that the 
Danish fleet was to be placed under the control of France, a 
British fleet under Admiral Gambier, and a land force under Lord 
Cathcart, were sent to Copenhagen ; and on the 7th of September. 
1807, they obliged the Danish general to deliver up, by capitu¬ 
lation, their whole fleet, consisting of eighteen ships of the line, 
fifteen frigates, six smaller vessels, and twenty-five gun-boats, 
together with all the stores. 

In 1808, the French power having prevailed to reduce Austria, 
Prussia, Russia, Holland, and the Italian states, to a state of 
humiliation, those countries were compelled to make peace with 
France, and to submit to the condition of resisting the introduction 
of English goods into any of their respective ports, with the view 
of ruining the commerce of this kingdom. But this state of 
things led to some consequences prejudicial to the French aims. 
The shutting up the continent from English commerce having 


370 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

been enforced by the most arbitrary and oppressive conduct on 
the part of the French government, it was found intolerable, and 
the sacrifices required likely to have no end. Russia therefore 
abandoned her alliance with France, and this rupture induced 
Buonaparte to invade the Russian dominions, with a force of 
nearly 300,000 men; but on reaching the city of Moscow, and 
finding it burnt, so as to be inadequate to afford shelter to his 
army, he was compelled to commence a retreat in the depth of 
winter : harassed by the Russians on every side, his army was not 
only defeated, but almost annihilated, by the sword, sickness, and 
various calamities, arising from the inclemency of the season. 
The disastrous termination of the French expedition to Russia 
gave an opportunity for Austria and Prussia to adopt the same 
measures for abandoning their connexion with France, and they 
entered into an alliance with Russia. To destroy which, the 
French ruler, the following year (1813) collected a powerful 
army in Saxony; but being attacked by the allied powers, and 
defeated in the battle of Leipsic, was compelled to retreat to 
France, followed by the united forces of his enemies; who, 
undaunted and victorious, in their turn penetrated into the very 
heart of France, to seek and ensure peace to Europe, and in March 
1814 took possession of its capital. 

They entered Paris, however, not as conquerors, but as deli¬ 
verers. The emperor of Russia and the king of Prussia were 
received by all ranks of the population with the most cheering 
acclamations. The senate having been called together on the 
following day, a provisional government was immediately nomi¬ 
nated, and resolutions were adopted, declaring that the dynasty of 
Buonaparte was at an end. In April a new constitution was 
presented to the senate, which, after certain modifications, was 
adopted. It was accepted by the legitimate heir of the house 
of Bourbon, who had long been an exile, and who afterwards 
ascended the throne by the title of Louis XVIII. 

Buonaparte, forlorn and almost unattended, was conducted to 
the island of Elba, where he remained for some time. After a 
few months’ residence on the island, however, a correspondence was 
carried on between him and his partizans in France, which ended 
in his return thither at the head of what appeared to be an 
inconsiderable force. But such was the infatuation of the French 
people, and particularly of the army, that he marched without in¬ 
terruption to Paris, from whence the king had previously escaped; 
and for some time all ranks of people seemed to vie with each 
other in inviting again to the throne, a man who a few months 
before had quitted their country in disgrace. 


HISTORY. 


Off » 

O l J 

This counter-revolution, however, was transitory as it was 
unexpected. It drew upon France the overwhelming force of the 
allies, which had but recently retired from it; and the results of 
the battle of Waterloo, in which the British arms took a con¬ 
spicuous part, and which was fought in June 1815, were altogether 
without a parallel in history, whether we consider their intrinsic 
magnitude, their bearing on the peace and happiness of the world, 
or the rapidity with which they were accomplished. The Bour¬ 
bons were by it once more restored to the throne of France— 
Paris again in the hands of the allies—and Buonaparte imprisoned 
for life in the isle of St. Helena, under the complete control of 
the British government, which he aptly styled, u the most power¬ 
ful, the most constant, and the most generous of his enemies/’’ 
After remaining in confinement for some years, a monument of 
the instability of human greatness, this extraordinary man expired 
May 5th, 1821. 

But to return from a digression to which we have been led by the 
intimate connexion of the important events narrated with the 
destiny of Great Britain. Little worthy of record in so brief a 
sketch as the present took place during the remainder of the reign 
of George III. His Majesty had from long indisposition been 
unable to attend to the duties of his high station, and the prince 
of Wales had for some time held the reins of government, with 
the title of Prince Regent. His Majesty closed his long and 
eventful life on the 29th of July, 1820, in the eighty-second year 
of his age, and the sixtieth of his reign. 

During the reign of his son and successor, George IV., the 
most remarkable event was the repeal of the laws relating to 
Roman Catholics, commonly called Catholic Emancipation. 
George IV. died June 26, 1830, and was succeeded by his brother, 
the duke of Clarence. 

The principal circumstances which mark the reign of Willia n 
IV. are the bills for Parliamentary and Municipal Reform— 
measures which promise to be of great and lasting importance to 
the interests of this country. William TV. died June 20, 1837, 
and was succeeded by our present youthful Queen. 

Alexandina Victoria I. daughter of the duke and duchess of 
Kent, was born at Kensington, May 24, 1819, and proclaimed 
queen June 21, 1837. No events of so complete a character as 
to be worthy of record have as yet transpired, except the abolition 
of slavery in the West Indies, which took place August 1, 
1838 ; an act of humanity which will do honour to her name, and 
which will appropriately close this brief history. 


YOIJNG MANS COMPANION 


n *fo 

O I . ; -v 


CHAPTER VIII. 

CHRONOLOGY. 

Chronology is that science which treats of the artificial 
divisions of time, and teaches us to adapt them to past transactions, 
in order to illustrate history. 

Times are distinguished under various eras and epochs. An 
epoch is a point of time that begins eras, and concludes with 
some remarkable change of things. The first epoch of time, for 
instance, is said to have been that space which intervened between 
Adam and the flood; the second is from the flood to the days of 
Abraham. 

An Era is a particular date or period, whence a series of years 
is computed; its origin is contested, though generally allowed to 
have had its rise in Spain. Sepulveda supposes it formed from 
A. E R. A. the note of abbreviation of the words Annus E Rat 
Augusti; occasioned by the Spaniards beginning their computation 
from the time their country came under the dominion of Augustus, 
or that of receiving the Roman calendar. We shall brieflv notice 
the principal of these divisions of time. 

Era of the Olympiads .—-This method of computation had its 
rise from the Olmypic games, which were celebrated every fifth 
year, near the city of Olympia, in Peloponnesus. The first 
Olympiad commenced, according to some chronologers, in the year 
3938 of the Julian period, the year from the creation 3174, the 
year before Christ 774, and 24 years, some will have 23 years, 
before the building of Rome. The Olympiads were also called anni 
Iphiti, from Iphitus, who instituted, or at least renewed the 
solemnity of the Olympic games. We do not find any compu¬ 
tation by Olympiads after the 364th, which ended with the year 
of Christ 440, except that in a charter of our king Ethelbert, 
the years of his reign are said to be reckoned by Olympiads. 
This method of reckoning was followed by the ancient Greeks. 

Era of the building of Rome .—This era took place a.m. 3197, 
and b. c. 752 or 753. This has also been called the Varronian 
epoch, being first introduced by Terentius Varro. The ancient 
Roman historians usually follow this epoch, which is referred to thus, 


CHRONOLOGY. 


878 


A.U.C. (that is, anno urbis conditae, or the year of the building 
of the city.) 

The eras or epochs, however, which are now chiefly in use, are 
the following, namely :— 

Epoch of the creation of the world. —The number of years 
that elapsed from the creation to the birth of our Saviour, has 
never yet been satisfactorily ascertained by chronologers. It may 
here suffice to say, that the system most generally received is that 
of Archbishop Usher, who follows the computation of the 
Hebrew Bible, and fixes the creation of the world at 4000 years 
before the birth of Christ. 

The Christian era. —Learned men have differed in opinion 
with respect to the exact time of the birth of Christ, some 
placing it four, others seven years earlier than the first year of the 
Christian era. The uncertainty which exists upon this point, 
arises from the era not having been used until so many centuries 
had elapsed, that it was impossible to fix the date with accuracy. 
'I’his is, however, of very little consequence in the application of 
this era to chronological purposes, for all are agreed as to the 
numerical date of every year; the year 1818, for instance, being 
universally received as the year 1818 of the Christian era, although 
probably not the exact measure of the time which has elapsed 
from the birth of Christ. This era was invented about a.d. 527, 
by Dionysius Exiguus, a Scythian by birth, and a Roman abbot, 
who reckoned the first year of it to correspond Vitli the 47th of 
the Julian period. This mode of reckoning from the birth of 
Christ, though recommended by every thing that could make it 
valuable, was not generally adopted till the commencement of the 
ninth century; a proof of the reluctance with which improvements, 
though in the highest degree necessary, were received in those 
dark ages. 

Era of the French Revolution. —As this era is constantly 
referred to by French writers, during the time that France was 
under republican government, a few particulars concerning it may 
assist the reader’s historical studies. 

The era in question was substituted for the vulgar or Christian 
era, in all public and civil instruments, by virtue of the decree, 
issued by the National Convention, on the 5th of October, 1798. 
It commenced with the epoch of the foundation of the republic, 
that is, on the 22dof September, 1792, of the vulgar era; on 
the morning of which day the sun arrived at the true autumnal 
equinox, at 18 minutes and 30 seconds past nine o’clock (Paris 
time.) This era was abolished by Buonaparte, and the Christian 
era has been reestablished since 1806. 


374 YOUNG man's companion. 

The Year. —Chronologers have made use of two different sorts 
of years, the one taken from the course of the sun, the other from 
that of the moon. The first, called a solar year, is again divided 
into two, one of them is exact, and measures the entire course of 
the sun; it is called a tropical year, because it begins with the 
solstice, and determines in 365 days and nearly the fourth part of 
a day. The other is called a civil year, less accurate than the 
former, and subservient to popular uses. 

The lunar year continues 354 days. This kind of year is now 
in use among the Arabians, Turks, and Saracens. 

There are other marks and characters of time, or chronological 
terms, which ought to be explained, as cycle, epacts, &c. on account 
of their frequent use in history. 

A cycle is a perpetual circulation and recurrence of the same 
parts of time. The origin of cycles was thus:— 

The apparent revolution of the sun round the earth has been 
arbitrarily divided into 24 hours ; the basis or foundation of all 
our mensuration of time. Civil use knows none but hours; or 
rather multiples of hours, as days and years. But neither the 
annual motion of the sun, nor that of the other heavenly bodies, can 
be measured exactly, and without any remainder, by hours, or their 
multiples. That of the sun is 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes, 
nearly. That of the moon, 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes. Hence, 
to swallow up these fractions in whole numbers, and yet in num¬ 
bers which onl^ express days and years, cycles have been in¬ 
vented ; which, comprehending several revolutions of the same 
body, replace it, after a certain number of years, in the same 
points of the heavens, whence it first departed: or, which is the 
same thing, in the same place of the calendar. 

Such is the famous cycle of 19 years, called also the cycle of 
the moon, or lunar cycle, a period of 19 solar years; equivalent 
to 19 lunar years and 7 intercalary months: in which time the 
new and full moons are supposed to return to the same day of the 

Julian vear. 

•/ 

This is also called the Metonic period, from its inventor Meton 
the Athenian, and the golden number ; though in propriety the 
golden number is rather that particular number which shows the 
year of the lunar cycle any given year is in. This cycle of the 
moon only holds true for 312 years; for though the new moons 
do return to the same day after 19 years, yet not to the same 
time of the day, but near an hour and a half sooner; which error, 
in 312 years, amounts to an entire day. Yet those employed in 
reforming the calendar went on a supposition of the lunations re¬ 
turning precisely from 19 to 19 years for ever. 


CHRONOLOGY. 


375 


'1 he use of this cycle in the ancient calendar is to show the 
new moon in each year, and the time of Easter. In the new one 
it only serves to find the epacts ; which show, in either calendar, 
that the new moons fall 11 days too late. 

The cycle of the sun, or solar cycle, is a revolution of 28 years, 
beginning with 1 , and ending with 28 ; which being elapsed, the 
dominical or Sunday letters, and those that express the other 
feasts, &c. return into their former place, and proceed in the same 
order as before. It is called solar cycle, not with regard to the 
sun’s course, which has nothing to do with it, but from Sunday, 
anciently called dies soils, the day of the Sun, because the 
dominical letter is principally sought for from this revolution; 
the dominical letters of which are the first in the alphabet, having 
been substituted in lieu of the mundinal letters of the Romans. 

The reformation of the calendar under Pope Gregory occasioned 
a considerable alteration in the cycle; in the Gregorian calendar 
the solar cycle is not constant and perpetual, because every fourth 
secular year is common, whereas in the Julian it is bissextile. 
The epoch or beginning of the solar cycle, both Julian and Gre¬ 
gorian, is the ninth year before Christ. 

A Julian year is a solar year, containing, commonly, 365 days ; 
though every fourth year, called bissextile, contains 366. The 
astronomical quantity, therefore, of the Julian year, is 365 days 
6 hours, which exceeds the true solar year by 11 minutes; which 
excess, in 131 years, amounts to a whole day ; and thus the Roman 
year stood, till the reformation made therein by Pope Gregory. 

Epacts. —The number of days added to the lunar, to make it 
equal to the solar, year: they are either annual or menstrual. 

Hence, as the Julian year is 365 days 6 hours, and the Julian 
lunar year 354 days 8 hours 41 minutes 38 seconds, the annual 
epact will be 10 days 21 hours 11 minutes 22 seconds; that is, 
nearly 11 days. Consequently, the epact of two years is 22 days ; 
of three years, 33 days; or rather three, since 30 days make an 
embolisimic, or intercalary month. 

Thus the epact of four years is 14 days, and so of the rest; 
and thus every 19th year the epact becomes 30 or O 4 consequently 
the 20 th year, the epact is 11 again; and so the cycle of epacts 
expires with the golden number, or lunar cycle, of 19 years, and 
begins with the same. 

Months and Days. — January is the first month in the year 
among the western nations. The word is derived from Januarius , 
a name given it by the Romans, from Janus , one of their 
divinities, to whom they attributed two faces ; because on the one 


YOUNG MAN’S -COMPANION. 


side tlie first of January looked towards the new year, and on the 
other towards the old one. The word Januarius may also be de¬ 
rived from janua, a gale; for the first month is as the gale of the 
year. Numa Pompilius made January the first month; Romulus s 
year beginning in the month of March. 

February is derived from Februa , an old Latin word; for, 
from the very foundation of the city, we meet with februa for 
purification ; and februare to purge or purify. In this month the 
Romans held a feast in behalf of the manes of the deceased ; and 
Macrobius tells us, that in this month also sacrifices were per¬ 
formed, and the last offices were paid to the defunct. 

March (the third month according to our computation) was 
considered as the first by some of the ancients, and by others as 
the third, fourth, or fifth, and even the tenth month of the year. 
Romulus named it after his supposed father, Mars, and appointed 
it as the first month of the year. 

April (in Latin Aprilis) is derived from Aperio , 1 open ; 
because the earth in this month begins to open her bosom for the 
production of vegetables. 

May , the fifth month, was called Maim , by Romulus, from 
respect to the senators and nobles of the city, who were called 
Majores: though others say it was so called from Maia , the 
mother of Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifice in this month. 

June, by the Romans called Junius , in honour of the Roman 
youth who served Romulus in war; some derive the word Junius 
from Juno. 

July is the seventh month; the word is derived from the Latin 
Julius , the surname of 0. Csesar, the dictator, who was born in 
this month. Marc Antony first gave this month the name of 
July, which was before called Quintilis , as being the fifth month 
of the year in’ the old Roman calendar. For the same reason 
August was called Secclilis; and September, October, November, 
and December, still retain their original names. 

August , in a general sense, implies something majestic, and the 
appellation was first conferred on Octavius by the Roman senate. 
Octavius, then named Augustus Csesar, was in this month created 
consul; he had thrice triumphed in Rome, subdued Egypt to the 
Roman empire, and terminated the civil wars : on this account the 
month was dedicated to his honour, and is still called after his name. 

September , from Septimus , the seventh month, reckoning from 
March, which was the first month of the ancients. The Roman 
senate would have given this month the name of Tiberius , but 
the emperor opposed it. Under other emperors it had other names ; 
but at present they are all disused. 


CM KONOLOOY. 


377 


October , the eighth month in the year in Romulus’s calendar, 
though the tenth in that of Numa, Julius Caesar, &c. October 
has still retained its name, notwithstanding all the names the 
senate and the Roman emperors would have given it: as 
Faustinus, Invictus, and Domitianus. 

November was the ninth month in the year of Romulus, 
(whence its name) but it is the eleventh month of the Julian 
year. 

December, from decern , ten; it being assigned by Romulus as 
the tenth month in the year. It is now the last, wherein the sun 
enters the tropic of Capricorn, and marks the winter solstice. 

Months are solar or lunar:—A solar month is the space of 
time within which the sun moves through one entire sign of the 
ecliptic. A lunar periodical month is the space of time wherein 
the moon makes her round through the zodiac, or wherein she 
returns to the same point. 

r Ilie Cld Style is the Julian manner of computing time, and 
agrees with the Julian year, which contains 365 days 6 hours. 
The Gregorian, or New Style, agrees with the true solar year, 
which contains only 365 days 5 hours and nearly 49 minutes. 
In the year of Christ 201, there Avas no difference of styles, but 
there is now a difference of eleven days between the old style 
and the neAv, the latter being much before-hand with the former. 

At the diet of Ratisbon, in 1700, it was decreed by the body 
of protestants of the empire, that eleven days should be retrenched 
from the old style, in order to accommodate it to the new, and the 
same regulation has since passed into Sweden, Denmark, and 
England; Avhere it was established by Geo. II. c. 23, which 
enacts that the supputation, according to which the year of our 
Lord begins on the 25th day of March, shall not be used from 
and after the last day of December 1751 ; and that from 
thenceforth the first day of January every year shall be reckoned 
the first day of the year; and that the natural day next immedi¬ 
ately following the second day of September 1752, shall be 
called and reckoned the fourteenth day of September, omitting 
the eleven intermediate days of the common calendar; and that 
the several natural days succeeding the fourteenth day shall, be 
called and reckoned in numerical order. The adoption of the 
Gregorian computation accordingly took place in 1752, and is noAV 
recognised throughout the kingdom. 


378 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


CHAPTER IX. 

GEOGRAPHY. 


Geography instructs us in the form of the globe we inhabit, and 
describes its constituent parts, as well as the nations and kingdoms of 
which it is composed. To the utility and importance of this study, 
the experience of every one must bear testimony. Without some 
practical acquaintance with it, the ordinary intercourse and affairs 
of society could not be carried on; and, accordingly, traits of this 
study are to be found in the earliest accounts of the human race. 
In the Scriptures we are told that Moses, upon approaching the 
promised land, laid before the rulers of the Israelites a description 
of the several districts each tribe was to occupy. The Phoenicians, 
the earliest navigators of whom we have any proper accounts, must 
likewise very early have contrived methods of laying down the 
coast of the countries and islands to which, for commercial pur¬ 
poses, they were accustomed to resort. The first account, however, 
upon record, of any thing corresponding to our modern maps, is 
that conveyed to us by our great masters in knowledge of every 
kind, the Greeks. By their historians we are told that Thales, 
or rather his successor Anaximander, about 600 years before our 
Saviour, produced a draught or map, on which were laid down 
the positions of Greece and its adjoining countries. After Anax¬ 
imander, came a succession of geographers among the Greeks, of 
whose writings, in general, only imperfect fragments have come 
down to our hands. At last, in the reign of Augustus Caesar, 
about the year 19 of our Lord, appeared Strabo, a native of Lesser 
Asia, near the Black Sea, who, profitingby the information collected 
by scientific men, employed by Julius Caesar, the illustrious pre¬ 
decessor of Augustus, composed a general system of geography, 
which has happily been preserved tolerably entire to our days. This 
work, besides geographical and historical information concerning 
such quarters of the globe as were then known, many of which 
the author had himself visited, contains a number of curious 
inquiries relative to disputed points, and extracts from the writings 
of his predecessors, which, but for Strabo’s works, would now be 
utterly unknown. Fifty years after Strabo, Ptolemy of Alexandria 



140 


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GEOGRAPHY. 


379 


in Egypt, published a treatise containing directions for the con¬ 
struction of maps, adapted to the globular form of the earth, and 
to the positions of places with respect to latitude and longitude. 

The inconsiderate and uninformed portion of mankind have 
been of opinion that the earth is a vast extended plane surface, 
bounded on all sides by the sea or the heavens. More attentive 
and sagacious observers, however, were long ago persuaded that the 
earth is a round ball or globe, maintaining its appointed station 
among the innumerable bodies composing the universe, and far 
removed from contact with any other body, of either the same 
ora different kind. The globular or spherical form of the earth 
may be argued from the following facts. When we stand by the 
side of a large piece of water, of several miles in breadth, and fix 
our eye carefully on such objects, on the opposite side of the water, 
as just appear along its surface, if we stoop the eye downwards, 
the objects we saw on the surface will gradually seem to sink 
below the water, and at last entirely disappear. On the other 
hand, if, by ascending an eminence, we raise the eye above its 
former position, we shall gradually discover new objects, rising 
above the surface of the water, and which will, in the same order, 
successively disappear below the surface, as we descend to our 
original station. These appearances can be accounted for no other 
way, than by supposing the surface of the water to be a portion 
of the rounded surface of the globe ; and the fact may be easily 
ascertained, by an experiment on any body of a globular shape. 
In every eclipse of the moon, occasioned by our earth coming 
between her and the sun, the shadow on her body is invariably 
circular; consequently the body, thus intercepting the light, must 
be circular in all directions. Were the earth a circular, thin 
plane, as has been supposed, the shadow could not be always of 
the same shape ; but that the earth is a globe or sphere, is placed 
beyond all possibility of doubt, by the voyages repeatedly per¬ 
formed round the world, from the port of departure to the same 
port again. Such voyages are utterly inexplicable, unless the seas 
on which they pursued their course had been spread out upon the 
surface of a ball or globe. 

When, however, measurements for the purpose of determining 
the dimensions of the earth were made in places at g^eat distances 
asunder, the results were so far from agreeing with one another, that 
inquirers began to suspect our ball, though of a globular shape, not 
to be a perfect sphere. If you whirl a key at the end of a string 
round your finger, the key acquires a motion, by which, if not 
hindered by the string, it Avould fly off to a considerable distance. 
Just such an effect is produced on the globe of the earth in its 


380 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


motion round itself once in twenty-four hours. The parts at the 
greatest distance from the points round which it turns move with 
much greater velocity. If a ball of soft loose materials were 
rapidly whirled round upon an axle, the particles would have a 
tendency to fly off, and would swell out and accumulate towards 
the middle of the ball, gradually leaving the parts near the axle. 
After some continuance of this rapid whirling, the ball, which was 
at first a perfect globe, would assume a different form, resembling, 
in some measure, that of an orange revolving round a wire passing 
through the middle of its flattened sides. From a consideration 
of this and some other facts, our immortal countryman, Sir Isaac 
Newton, demonstrated that, if the earth were pierced through the 
centre, by a line from the middle of the flattened sides, it would 
be about 85 English miles shorter than a similar line carried at 
right-angles to the first, passing through the swelling surface of 
the globe; and his doctrine has been admirably confirmed by 
repeated measurement of parts of the earth's surface. It appears 
that, if it were a perfect sphere, its axis, in whatever way it passed 
through the centre, would be about 7980 English miles, making 
the circumference about 24,918 miles: the 860th part of one 
degree would then contain 69.2 English miles. It appears, how¬ 
ever, that where the earth has the greatest diameter, a degree of 
her circumference from west to east contains nearly 70§ English 
miles. It will occur to the reader that when the surface of the 
earth is described as a globe or sphere, no allowances are made 
for the inequalities produced by mountains of even the greatest 
elevation, but the highest mountains in the world would not stand 
more than a quarter of an inch above its general surface : in 
speaking of the globular surface of the earth, therefore, the ine¬ 
qualities upon it, in heights and hollows, may safely be neglected. 

When we observe the sun, moon, and other heavenly bodies 
begin regularly to appear, or rise, as we call it, in the east; advance 
to their greatest elevation, and then sink down and at last disappear 
or set in the west; it is natural for us to imagine them to be really 
in motion from east to west, whilst we on the earth are perfectly 
motionless. The traveller in a boat descending a river, moving 
swiftly forward, is apt to think that the trees, houses, and other 
objects on either hand, are rushing quickly by in a direction con¬ 
trary to its course. Experience, however, soon corrects this error. 
In the same way, more extended views of the nature of the visible 
universe, and of the magnitudes and distances of its component 
parts, will lead us to account for their apparent motion in a way 
infinitely more simple, and suitable to the ordinary course of nature. 
Were the sun to revolve round this earth once in every twenty- 


GEOGRAPHY. 


381 


four hours, such is the extent of the circle he would have to travel, 
that it would demand a rapidity of motion utterly beyond our 
comprehension. The circumference of the orbit in which he 
would move would be nearly 597 millions of miles, which will 
give 34,540 miles for every second of time. Now supposing the 
earth should turn once round upon herself, all the appearances of 
the twenty-four hours would be completely exhibited, and that in 
a manner admirably simple and easy. The circumference of the 
earth where greatest, and where, in her revolution, the parts move 
with the greatest velocity, is about 25 ,430 English miles. A point 
in her surface in that quarter must, by her turning once round in 
twenty-four hours, move at the rate of 518 yards (not a third of 
a mile) in one second. When we consider the prodigious dif¬ 
ference of rapidity between this and the former rate, it is impos¬ 
sible that any rational being can refuse his assent to the opinion, 
that the various appearances brought before us in the course of a 
day are produced, not by the inconceivably rapid circulation of 
the whole heavens, but by the simple, easy, and comparatively 
slow turning of the earth itself, upon its own axis. 

An observer on board a ship, bound for India, perceives, as he 
quits the English shore and advances southwards to the Cape of 
Good Hope, that the sun comes daily more and more over his 
head at noon, and at last arrives at a point perpendicularly above 
him. Continuing on his course, the sun shines from the north. 
Having turned round the Cape, he directs his course northerly, 
bringing the sun at noon more and more over him, and at last, 
before he arrives at Calcutta, has the sun again on his south side, 
as it was before he left England. This appearance is not peculiar 
to the sun ; for as the traveller proceeds southwards, he will gra¬ 
dually discover, along the surface of the ocean, stars never before 
visible, whilst others in the northern quarter retire below the ho¬ 
rizon. The north pole star itself will, when he arrives at the 
equinoctial line, sink into the waters behind him. This will con¬ 
tinue until he double the Cape of Good Hope, where, steering 
northward, the south pole will be lost, and the northern heavens 
return to his sight. All who have sailed round the earth have 
followed an eastern or a western course : but were it not for the 
immense bodies of ice upon the seas in the northern and southern 
regions of the globe, voyages might be equally performed by courses 
north or south. These facts establish beyond a doubt that the 
earth is a globe or spherical body, totally detached from every 
other body by which it can be supported, like the child’s soap- 
bubble, and maintained in its place in the universe by causes and 
laws impressed upon it, and all the other heavenly bodies, at the 
moment of the creation. 


382 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


If through the flattened sides of an orange we pass a long wire, 
and make the orange revolve round it, we shall have an idea of 
the way in which the earth turns upon itself. Not that in the 
earth any such material axis exists, but to this imaginary axis we 
give a name, borrowed from other machines, of which we have a 
knowledge. The points where this imaginary line comes to the 
suiface of the globe, are termed poles, from a Greek word signi¬ 
fying to turn round. If this axis be supposed to extend both ways 
till it seem to touch the surrounding heavens, it will mark out two 
other points for the poles of the world ; for round the imaginary 
axis, extending between these latter points, the whole universe 
appears to revolve, while the points themselves remain unmoved. 
That point which is visible from one side of the globe, we call 
the north pole; and the opposite point, the south pole. If we 
divide the space between the north and south poles into two 
equal parts, and conceive a line to be drawn quite round the 
globe, it will divide the globe in two equal parts, hence called 
hemispheres, i. e. half-spheres; it is therefore termed the equator. 

The distance of any place on the globe east or west from a 
given position is termed its longitude (length), and its distance 
north or south from a given position is called its latitude (breadth). 
Latitude is reckoned from the circle begirting the globe, i. e. the 
equator, and is called north or south latitude, according to the 
position of any place on the north or south side of the equator. 
Lhe cucumference of the globe is divided into 360 degrees: the 
distance between the poles contains 180 degrees, and that from 
cither pole to the equator contains 90 degrees: consequently no 
place can be more than 90° of latitude either way. Longitude is 
not of the same fixed nature, because there is no pointfixed on 
the globe from which it must be reckoned ; it is now the practice 
for the inhabitants of different countries to count from the position 
of their own capital or other noticeable place. Longitude is 
reckoned east or west upon the equator, and is counted one 
half, or 180°, eastward, and the other half, 180°, westward. The 
line supposed to extend over London from pole to pole is called the 
meridian, from a Latin word signifying mid-day; because, when the 
sun comes upon that line, it is then noon or mid-day at that place 
and the sun is at his greatest apparent elevation. The meridian from 
which longitude is counted, is called the first meridian. An obser¬ 
vatory has been erected on an eminence in Greenwich Park, where 
a regular series of observations has long been carried on by astro¬ 
nomers of the first eminence, with instruments not to be matched 
elsewhere in the world. For this reason, it is now the established 
practice to reckon longitude from the point where the meridian 
passing over Greenwich observatory intersects the equator ; and it 


GEOGRAPHY. 


383 


is tlience considered the first meridian for the British empire. 
In France longitude is counted from the meridian passing over 
the observatory situated adjoining to the south side of Paris. 
In Spain it is reckoned from the observatory of the Naval Academy 
in Cadiz. 

Latitude being reckoned both ways from the equator for 90° 
to the poles, if the position of the centre of London be compared 
with the north pole, and the equator, upon the meridian, it will 
be found to be 51 degrees 30 minutes and 49 seconds to the 
north of the equator; consequently London is said to be situated 
in 51° 30' 49 7 of N. latitude. The first meridian of British 
geographers passes from the N. pole over Greenwich, through the 
western parts of France and eastern parts of Spain, and across 
the continent of Africa, traversing the coast of Guinea near Cape 
Coast castle, and cuts the equator about 8 degrees 14 minutes west 
from the island of St. Thomas, situated close to that line. If we 
wanted, therefore, to know the longitude of any place with respect 
to the meridian of Greenwich, we would carry the meridian of the 
place in question down to the equator, and there count how many 
degrees, minutes, &c., were intercepted between it and the first 
meridian ; noting at the same time whether it lay to the eastward, 
or to the westward of it. Thus the meridian of the observatory of 
Paris will be found to cross the equator 2 degrees 19 minutes 
51 seconds to the east of the first meridian: it is therefore said to 
be in 2° 19' 51" of E. longitude from Greenwich. 

The difference of latitude between two places is known by 
subtracting the lesser latitude from the greater, when both places 
lie on the same side of the equator : but by adding them together 
when they lie on opposite sides, because the latitude is counted 
both ways from the equator. Thus, to know the difference of 
latitude between London and Edinburgh, we subtract the latitude 
of London 51° 30' 49* from that of Edinburgh 55° 57' 5'', when 
the difference of latitude is 4° 26' 16". On the other hand, to 
find the difference of latitude between Portsmouth observatory 
in North latitude 50° 48' 3", and the Cape of Good Hope in 
south latitude 34° 29', on opposite sides of the equator, we add 
their quantities together, and the sum 85° 17' 3" is the difference 
of latitude. Again, to find the difference of longitude between 
two places on the same side, and within 180 degrees of the first 
meridian, we subtract the less from the greater; thus to find the 
difference of longitude between Paris observatory, situated in 2° 
19' 51" E. longitude from Greenwich, and Constantinople, in E. 
longitude 28° 55' 5'', we subtract the former from the latter, when 
the difference of longitude is 26° 35' 14". But when the two 


384 


YOUNG MA^S COMPANION. 


places lie on opposite sides of the first meridian, the two sums of 
longitude must be added together for the difference, i hus the 
difference of longitude between Cadiz, in longitude b 17 35 W. 
from Greenwich, and Vienna in longitude 16° 16' 22 E. from 
Greenwich, will be 22° 33' 57 # , &c. 

The constituent parts of the earth are land and water : the 
latter occupying about seven-tenths of the whole surface of the 
globe ; and the former rising in all imaginable varieties above its 

surface. 


The denominations of the several parts of land are—Conti¬ 
nents, Islands, Peninsulas, Isthmuses, Promontories,Capes, Coasts, 
Mountains, &c. 

A Continent is a large tract or portion of land, containing 
several countries, empires, kingdoms, or states, without an entiie 
separation of its parts by water; as Europe, Asia, Africa, or 
America. 

An Island is a less portion of land, entirely surrounded by 
water; as Great Britain or Ireland. 

A Peninsida is a tract of land, surrounded by water except at 
one point, where it is connected with a neighbouring continent; 
such are Spain, the Morea in Greece, and even Africa itself, which, 
though called a continent from its extent, has the stronger features 
of a peninsula. 

An Isthmus is a neck of land, forming a communication between 
a peninsula and a continent; as the Isthmus of Suez, which unites 
Africa to Asia ; or the Isthmus of Darien, which connects North 


and South America. 

A Promontory differs but little from a peninsula, except that 
its base is united to the main without the intervention of an 
isthmus; such are Italy, Mysore in India, and California in 
North America. 

A Cape is a hill, or point of land, terminating a promontory, 
as the Cape of Good Hope. The terms Point, Head, Mull, &c., 
are also applied to remarkable portions of land, stretching out 
into the ocean; as the Lizard Point, Flamborough Head, &c. 

A Coast , or Shore , is that part of a country which borders on 
the sea; as the Coast of Guinea. 

A Mountain is any considerable elevation on the earth’s 
surface. The name is applied as well to detached heights as to 
connected groups, the last of which are called Chains of Mountains. 
They are composed of vast masses of rock, that appear to descend 
almost perpendicularly into the body of the earth, and are destitute 


GEOGRAPHY. 


385 

of shells or other organized marine matter. Of this kind are the 
Pyrenees, the Alps, the Appennines, &c. in Europe; the Riphajan 
Mountains, Caucasus,. Taurus, and Libanus, in Asia ; the Moun¬ 
tains of the Moon, in Africa; the Apalachian chain and the 
Andes, m America.. Another class of mountains, called volcanoes 
or burning mountains, comprises such as are more detached or 
surrounded by groups of lower hills, of which the soil, composed 
ot gravel and other loose materials, appears to be heaped up in a dis¬ 
orderly manner. Many of these are truncated, or have an opening 
shaped liked a funnel, towards their summits, which are composed 
of, or surrounded with, heaps of calcined and half vitrified bodies 
lava, kc. indicative of their volcanic origin. Such, among many 
others,^ are mounts .ZEtna and Vesuvius, in Sicily and Naples'• 

Adam s Peak, in the island of Ceylon ; the Peak of Teneriffe’ 
in the Canary Isles, &c. 

A Plain , or Down , is a level surface of the earth, destitute of 
trees. If of great.extent, and altogether without the large vege¬ 
tables, it is called, in Europe and Asia, a Steppe ; in America^ a 
feavannah, or. Pampa. If much elevated, and terminated on all 
sides by declivities, it is denominated a Plateau, or Table. The 
middle regions of Spain,, the central parts of Asia, and the elevated 
lands of Mexico, are of the latter description. 

. An Oasis is a fertile district amidst vast deserts of sand, like an 
island in the ocean. Several occur in the great desert of Africa. 

As the earth is divided by water into various parts; so the 
water, by the intervention of the land, is separated into equallv 
distinct portions, all of which have their peculiar designations ; as 
Oceans, Seas, Lakes, Straits, Gulfs, Bays, Rivers, &c. 

An Ocean is an immense collection of water, without, any entire 
separation of its parts by land;' as the Atlantic, or Western 
Ocean, which divides the Eastern continent from the Western ; the 
Pacific, which separates America from Asia; and the Indian Ocean, 
which lies between Africa and the Eastern Peninsula of India. 

A Sea is a smaller collection of water, communicating with 
the ocean, but confined by land on each side within narrow bounds; 
as the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, &c. 

A Strait is . a narrow part of a sea, by which the latter 
communicates with the ocean, or with another sea; as the Strait 
of Gibraltar, which forms a junction between the Mediterranean 
and the Atlantic; or the Strait of the Dardanelles, which 
affords a communication between the Sea of Marmora and the 
Archipelago. 

A Lake is a large collection of water, entirely surrounded by land; 


\ 


\ 


886 YOUNG man's companion. 

as the Lake of Geneva and the Caspian Sea ; for the hitter, though 
denominated a sea, from its immense size, is in reality a large lake. 

A Gulf is an arm of the sea running up into the land, and 
generally narrower at the entrance than within ; as the Gulf 
of Venice; the Persian Gulf; and the Gulf of Mexico. If a 
Gulf be very large, it is called an Inland Sea, as the Mediter¬ 
ranean. If it do not extend far inland, and be open at its entrance, 
it has the denomination of a Bay, as the Bay of Biscay, or the 
Bay of Bengal. When very small, it is called a Harbour, Haven, 
Cove, Creek, Lough, Frith or Firth, Road, Sound, or Bight; as 
Falmouth Harbour in Cornwall; Milford Haven in Wales; the 
Cove of Cork, and Belfast Lough, in Ireland; Solway Firth, 
between Cumberland and Scotland ; Plymouth Sound, in Devon¬ 
shire ; and the Bight of Benin, in the Gulf of Guinea. 

An Archipelago , generally, is any part of the sea containing nume¬ 
rous islands; particularly, the term is applied to that part of the Me¬ 
diterranean which lies between Greece and Anatolia, or Asia Minor. 

A River is a considerable body of flowing water, collected in 
the more elevated parts of land, and descending to the lower, 
discharging itself into the sea, or into some other river, which 
conveys the united stream to the ocean; as the Thames, in the 
former case, or the Derwent, in the latter. The longest river in 
Europe is the Danube (estimated at 1833 English miles) ; in 
Asia, the Enesei (3580 miles) ; in Africa, the Nile (3240 miles) ; 
and in America, the Mississippi and Missouri (3760 miles). 

Our globe is divided into two vast masses, called the Eastern, 
or Old Continent, and the Western, or New; besides innumerable 
detached portions, denominated Islands, of almost all figures and 
dimensions. 

The Eastern Continent is subdivided into three unequal portions, 
called Europe, on the north-west; Asia, on the north-east; and 
Africa, on the south. The Western Continent consists of Ame¬ 
rica, North and South, each a continent in itself, but united by a 
neck of land, called an isthmus, and forming the fourth division of 
the globe. Besides these, there is, south-east of Asia, a vast mass 
of land, called Australia, or New Holland, which, though detached, 
and surrounded by wuter, has been thought by some geographers 
to merit the appellation of a continent. This, with its surrounding 
groups of islands, constitutes a distinct geographical division under 
the name of Australasia. And the numerous islands scattered 
about the wide expanse of ocean which separates the eastern 
shores of Asia from the western borders of America, form another 
division, under the title of Polynesia. The two latter are now 
considered as forming together a new or fifth grand division of 


GEOGRAPHY. 


387 


the globe, under the term of Oceanic a. The total population of 
the world is estimated at 841 millions. 

/ 

Europe. 

Europe is bounded on the north by the Frozen Ocean, on 
the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea, and on the east by the continent of Asia, extending 
about 8000 miles in length, from Cape St. Vincent in the west 
to the river Oby in the north-east; and 2500 in breadth, from 
the North Cape of Norway to Cape Metapan in the Morea ; 
lying between the 36*th and 72d degrees of north latitude, anil 
containing about 160,000,000 inhabitants. 

The chief islands of Europe are Great Britain and Ireland, Ice¬ 
land, Zealand, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Candia, Majorca, Minorca, 
the Ionian Islands, and the Archipelago, or Greek Islands. 

The chief inland seas are the Mediterranean, the Baltic, the 
Black Sea, and the White Sea. 

Its principal rivers are, the Volga, or Wolga, the Danube, 
the Vistula, the Don, the Dnieper, the Rhine, the Elbe, the 
Tiber, the Tagus, and the Thames; the principal lakes are, 
the Ladoga, and Onega, Geneva, Constance, Como, Lough 
Neagh, and Loch Lomond. 

The most elevated mountains in Europe are, the Alps, the 
Pyrenees, the Appennines, the Carpathian, and the Dofrefeld. 

The volcanoes, or burning mountains, are, Vesuvius and Strom- 
boli, in Italy, Mount AEtnain Sicily, and Mount Heclain Iceland. 

Its principal capes are, the North Cape, the Naze of Norway, the 
Land’s End, Cape La Hogue, Finisterre, St. Vincent, and Trafalgar. 

Except in Turkey, where the people are Mahometans, and in 
some parts of Lapland, where paganism prevails, the Christian 
religion is universally professed in Europe; divided, however, 
into the Catholic, the Greek, and the Reformed Churches. 

The principal countries of Europe are, Sweden, including 
Lapland and Norway, Denmark, Russia, including Poland, 
Prussia, Germany, Austria, Holland, Belgium, France, Switzer¬ 
land, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, Greece, and the United 

Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 

© 

Sweden. —This country, together w r ith Lapland and Norway, 
forms one kingdom. The climate is cold but healthful, and the 
country mountainous, abounding in lakes, forests, and valuable 
mines of copper and iron. The mines and forests are the prin¬ 
cipal sources of its wealth. The Swedes arc brave and learned; 


388 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


but their native energies are repressed by the narrowness of theif 
means, and their neighbourhood to the powerful empire of Russia. 
The principal towns are, Stockholm, the capital, Upsal, famous for 
its university, Gothenburgh, in Gothland; Tornea, in West 
Bothnia; and some others of inferior note. Sweden and Swedish 
Lapland abound with natural curiosities, and with singular and truly 
sublime scenery. The total population of Sweden, including its 
dependencies, is about 41,000,000. 

Lapland is covered with vast forests of pines, affording, how¬ 
ever, some spots for pasture and cultivation. The character of the 
natives is hospitable and generous ; they derive their chief comforts 
from their rein-deer, by means of which they subsist, travel, and 
are clothed. 

Norway was formerly a kingdom of itself; it was then for 
many years dependent on Denmark, but by a more recent arrange¬ 
ment is now ceded to Sweden. The chief towns are Bergen and 
Christiana. 

Denmark. —It consists of the peninsula of Jutland, duchy of 
Sleswick, on the continent, the islands of Zealand, Funen, 
Langeland, Laaland, Falster, Bornholm, and Moen, besides two 
states of the German confederacy, viz. the duchies of Holstein 
and Lauenburgh. To the Danish kingdom also belong the Faroe 
Islands, Iceland, the western coast of Greenland, some places in 
Guinea, and the city and territory of Tranquebar. in the East 
Indies. The country is mostly flat, and abounds with bogs and 
morasses. It produces corn, timber, cattle, iron, fish, and different 
kinds of naval stores. It has the chief command of the Baltic, 
which gives it some importance. The principal town is Copen¬ 
hagen, which stands on the island of Zealand. The Danes are a 
peaceable and hardy race, but possess far less enterprise than their 
ancestors, who were once the terror of the more southern nations 
of Europe, and established their rule in Britain. Their religion, 
like that of the Scandinavian nation in general, is Lutheran. 
Iceland abounds in sulphur, subterraneous fires, volcanoes, hot 
springs, &c. Hecla in Iceland is a volcanic mountain a mile high, 
the top of which is always covered with snow. Greenland is 
famous for its whale fishery, but it is too cold to be inhabited by 
civilized man. 

Russia. —The Russian empire, which is the largest in the 
world, comprehends all the more northern parts of Europe, besides 
its possessions in Asia. In Europe only it is reckoned 1500 miles 
long, and 1,100 broad; but notwithstanding its extent, it is but 




GEOGRAPHY. 


389 


thinly peopled, and a large portion of the inhabitants arc still very 
uncivilized. The population has been estimated at 50,000,000. It 
contains at present fifty-one provinces, of which forty-one and part 
of four others are in Europe, Asiatic Russia containing six whole 
provinces, and the remainder of the four frontier provinces. It is 
bounded on the north by the Northern Ocean; on the south, 
by Austria, the Black and Caspian Seas, and Tartary ; on the 
east, by the Northern Pacific Ocean ; and on the west, by 
Sweden and the Baltic. In the northern parts of Russia the 
climate is intensely cold; but in the more southern parts, neither 
the climate nor the soil are ungenial. The face of the country is 
flat, with some mountainous districts. The great natural feature 
of European Russia is its steppes, which are immense plains formed 
in great part of sand, with little wood except stunted birches. In some 
parts the mixture of salt with the soil, in others the want of water, 
renders these levels unfit for cultivation. They extend throughout 
the south as well as the north. The principal cities and towns 
are Petersburgh, the modern capital, built by Peter the Great; 
Moscow, the ancient capital,a few years ago destroyed in the French 
campaign in Russia, but now rebuilt, and rapidly rising to wealth 
and importance ; Archangel, on the borders of the White Sea; 
Cherson, on the Black Sea; Astrachan, near the Caspian ; Warsaw, 
the capital of Poland; and Tobolsk, the capital of Siberia. The 
Russian government has long been a monarchy, with power unli¬ 
mited, except by the respect due to the nobility and clergy; the 
people being in a state of vassalage, and wholly unqualified to 
bear a part in governing themselves. The title of the sovereign, 
formerly grand prince, was changed by Peter I. to emperor and 
autocrat of all the Russias. The Russian government was 
declared by Alexander to be a constitutional monarchy, and the 
senate has the right of remonstrating against any ukase or edict 
contrary to law ; a power as yet only ostensible from the absence 
of public opinion in this country. 

The productions and exports of Russia are furs, leather, sail¬ 
cloth, sheeting, hemp, flax, timber, iron, copper^ pitch, tar, and 
cordage. The fisheries are also very considerable. Agriculture 
is in a very backward state. The great variety of climate in 
Russia implies a corresponding difference of products. Rye, 
barley, and oats, are the grains of the northern provinces, wheat 
being cultivated only in the south. The principal rivers are the 
Volga, which, after winding a course of 2,000 miles, discharges 
itself into the Caspian Sea; the Don, or Tanais, the Dnieper, 
the Dniester, the Dwina, and the Vistula. The Uralian mountains, 
extending,from north to south, divide European Russia from 


390 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

Asiatic Russia and Siberia. The inland navigation is extensive, as 
goods may be conveyed by water nearly from Petersburghto China. 

Poland. —Formerly an independent kingdom, but now almost 
annihilated from among the nations of the earth. It was bounded 
north by Prussia, east by Russia, west by Germany, and south 
by Hungary and Moldavia. In its highest prosperity it contained 
an area of 284,000 square miles, and a population of about 
15,000,000; but it has gradually been reduced in extent, and 
incorporated with its more powerful neighbours, Russia, Austria, 
and Prussia; till, in its political character, it can hardly be said 
to exist, anch its very name has almost disappeared from the map 
of Europe. At the settlement of the continent in 1815, after 
the overthrow of Buonaparte, a small portion of the original ter¬ 
ritory of Poland, with an area of about 47,000 square miles, and 
a population of 3,000,000, was erected into a separate kingdom, 
subject to the emperor of Russia, but governed by its own laws. 
It consisted of the central provinces of Poland, bounded by the 
acquisitions of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, and was divided 
into the eight palatinates of Cracow, Sendomir, Kalisch, Lubin, 
Plock, Masovia, Podlachia, and Augustow. By the liberal policy 
of the Emperor Alexander, who seems to have desired that the 
Poles should not lose entirely their national character and inde¬ 
pendence, a constitutional charter was framed in 1815. It con¬ 
sisted of a king, a senate, and a diet. This state of things lasted 
for several years, till the accession of the Emperor Nicholas, whose 
despotic line of policy towards the Poles roused them again to 
resistance. In 1833 they flew to arms, and made a noble effort 
to gain their independence ; but the overwhelming force which 
Russia was able to bring against them rendered the struggle 
ineffectual, and has only ended in their destruction. 

The face of the country is generally flat, the climate is rather 
cold, but the soil is productive in corn and other articles of export. 
The principal rivers are the Vistula, and the Neister or Boris- 
thenes. As for the character of the Poles, the nobles are generous 
and brave, and the inhabitants generally, in the late conflicts with 
Russia, manifested extraordinary courage and energy in defence 
of their liberties. 

Prussia. —This kingdom, erected under Frederic the Great, 
has in various instances exhibited energies which have astonished 
Europe. In 1741 it consisted only of Brandenburg and of Royal 
and Ducal Prussia. Frederic then wrested Silesia from Austria, 
and afterwards by the partition of Poland, acquired a large portion 


GEOGRAPHY. 


891 


of that country. By the war which Prussia commenced against 
France in 1806, she at first lost half her territory; but after the 
triumph of the combined armies in 1814, she regained nearly all 
she had lost, with the addition of fresh possessions in Saxony, 
Westphalia, and the Grand Duchy of the Rhine. The kingdom 
now consists of the following parts. 1. In Germany: Branden¬ 
burg, Pomerania, Silesia, Saxony, Westphalia, Juliers, Cleves and 
Berg, and the Lower Rhine.— 2. Notin Germany: East Prussia, 
West Prussia, Posen. The king of Prussia is also sovereign of 
Neufchatel in Switzerland. The population, at the end of 1827, 
according to the official returns, amounted to 12,552,278. The 
general face of the country is level, the soil is fruitful in corn, and 
the climate mild. One of the most remarkable productions of 
this country is yellow amber, which is found along the sea-coast. 
There are a great number of mechanics, but the principal business 
is husbandry and the feeding of cattle. The Prussians have a 
strong resemblance to their neighbours the Germans ; are a manly 
race, and, when led by able generals, have performed prodigies in 
war. The chief towns are, Berlin, the capital, Dantzic, Konigs- 
berg, Magdeburg,and Breslau. The universities are four in number; 
viz. Berlin, Halle, Breslau, and Konigsberg, and there are in these 
and at Dantzic, Magdeburg, and a number of other towns, acade¬ 
mies (under the name of gymnasia, colleges, or high schools,) in 
which are taught partly the classics and mathematics, but more 
especially the modern languages, drawing, and other accomplish¬ 
ments. The principal rivers are the Vistula, the Memel, the Oder, 
and the Elbe. 

Germany was formerly divided into nine great circles, con¬ 
sisting of an infinite number of independent states, all, however, 
bearing a nominal subjection to its head, the emperor of Germany ; 
but it is now subdivided into so many states, that a clear, definite 
limitation of what is meant by Germany, is attended with difficulty, 
and is called “ the stumbling-block of geographers. - ” By the over¬ 
whelming power of France, a few years ago Germany was parcelled 
out into various separate states, the principal of wFich were the 
kingdoms of Saxony, Westphalia, Bavaria, and Wirtemburg. After 
the overthrow of the French power in Europe, a new arrangement 
was settled by the Congress at Vienna. So far as it regards its 
relations to foreign powers, Germany has been formed into one 
great body, termed the Germanic Confederation, the objects of 
which are the maintenance of external and internal safety in 
Germany, and the independence and inviolability of the confede¬ 
rated states. 


392 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


1 he affairs of tlie confederation are confided to a federative diet, 
in which all the members may vote by their plenipotentiaries, 
either individually or collectively, in the following manner :— 


1. Austria. 

2. Prussia. 

3. Bavaria ... . 

4. Saxony .. 

5. Hanover .. 

6. Wirtembu p*rr 

>-* ***'*•• 

7. Baden . 

• •••••• 

8. Electoral Hesse, or Hesse Cassel . .' . . 

9. Grand Duchy of Hesse, (Hesse Darmstadt) . 

10. Denmark, for Holstein. 

11. Netherlands, for Luxemburg. 

12. Brunswick, 2 ; Nassau, 2. 

13. Mecklenburgh Schwerin, 2; Strelitz, 1 . . 

14. Saxe Wiemar, Gotha, Coburg, Meinungen, 
and Hildburghausen, each 1. . . . . . 

15. Holstein Oldenburgh, 1 ; Anhalt Dessau, 1; 

Anhalt Bernburg, 1 ; Anhalt Kotthen, or 
Cothen, 1 ; Schwartzburg Sonderhausen, 1 ; 
Schwartzburg Rudolstadt, 1. 

16. Hohenzollern Hechingen, J ; Lichtenstein, ] ; 

Hohenzollern Sigmaringen, 1 ; Waldeck, 1 ; 
Elder Pieuss, 1 ; Younger Reuss, 1 ; Schaum- 
burg-Lippe, 1 ; Lippe, 1 ; and the four free 
cities of Frankfort, Bremen, Hamburg, and 
Lubeck, each a vote. 


Votes. 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 
3 


6 


12 


Total , ... 69 

Austria presides at the federative diet. 


The chief towns of Germany, independently of those in king¬ 
doms, are Hamburg, on the Elbe, one of the first commercial 
cities in Europe; Frankfort, Mentz, Manheim, Heidelberg, 
Cassel, Bremen, Gotha, &c. The principal rivers are, the Danube, 
the largest in Europe ; the Rhine, running from Switzerland to 
Holland; the Elbe, running through Prussia and Saxony; the 
Maine, the Weser, and the Oder. 


Saxony.— The electorate of Saxony was raised into a kino-dom 
by Napoleon, but after his defeat in 1814 was stripped of several 
of its territories. It now contains 1,400,000 people, esteemed 
the happiest and most industrious in Germany. Dresden is 
the capital, and Leipsic, one of the most flourishing towns, is a 













GEOGRAPHY. 


393 


university. In relation to the trade of Saxony the exports consist 
in wool, minerals, linen, yarn, woollens, and lace. The importss 
are, silk, flax, cotton, coffee, sugar, wine, and sometime corn. 

Bavaria, kingdom of, is the third state in the German 
Confederation. It is divided into the following eight circles: 
Isar, Upper Maine, Lower Maine, Rezat, Regen, Upper Danube, 
Lower Danube, and Rhine, the last of which is situated on 
the left bank of the Rhine. Each circle is subdivided into a 
certain number of courts of justice. The capital is Munich 
(Munchen), and the Bavarian dominions, bounded by the Austrian 
states, Wirtemburg, and Saxony, contain about 4,000,000 in¬ 
habitants. This kingdom includes the cities of Ratisbon, 
(Regensburg,) Augsburg, Wurzburg, &c. Volcanic rocks are 
found here, together with granite, gneiss, sienite, and porphyry, 
supporting sandstone, argillaceous and calcareous rocks, besides 
copper, cobalt, and iron. Agriculture is much encouraged bv the 
Bavarian government, and varieties of grain are cultivated here, 
many kinds of fruit, and much wine produced. 

Wirtemburg. —This kingdom of Germany forms part of the 
old circle of Suabia, having Bavaria on the east, and Baden on 
the west. Its territorial division is into the four circles of Jaxt, 
Neckar, Black Forest, and Danube. These are further divided 
into twelve small counties, each of which is subdivided into 
bailiwics. The population is 1,536,000. It produces plenty of 
pasture, corn, fruit, and a great deal of Neckar wine. There are 
also mines and salt springs, and much game. The manufactures 
are linen, woollen, and iron-works. This country was erected into 
a kingdom by Napoleon in 1805, who made great additions to 
it by the territories taken from Austria. Stutgard is the capital. 

Hanover. —This kingdom and member of the Germanic Con¬ 
federacy, formerly a dependency on the British crown, is bounded 
on the north-west by the German Ocean, on the north-east by the 
river Elbe, on the south-west by Dutch Friesland and Prussian 
Westphalia, and on the south-east by Saxony. It consists of the 
duchy of Bremen, the principality of Luneburg, and several other 
countries, some of which are detached from the main body. The 
population amounts to 1,600,000, of whom 1,300,000 are Luthe¬ 
rans. With the exception of the chain of mountains called the 
Hartz, and some other elevated tracts in the south, this territory 
consists of an immense plain, with gentle undulations, but hardly 
any that can be called a mountain. In the south the valleys aK 

3 E 


894 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


fertile; in the north are many barren heaths and moors. Iron, 
copper, and lead, are wrought here to a great extent. The iron 
mines are the most productive, and their annual tenth paid to the 
crown yields a revenue of about 115,000/. Agriculture in cenerai 
is in a backward state. Thread and linen manufactures are 
carried on in various parts. The other manufactures are coarse 
woollens, paper, leather, and glass. The only town which has a 
maritime trade of consequence is Embden. The goods im¬ 
ported include English manufactures and colonial produce ; linen 
from Friesland and Prussia ; broad cloth, silk, and jewellery from 
France. The chief exports are coarse linen, iron, and copper 
from Hartz, timber cut in planks, also horses and black cattle from 
various parts of the kingdom. Hanover has one university at 
, Gottingen. George IV. of England, when prince regent, gave 
Hanover a modified charter, under which the chambers exercised 
the same privileges as the former provincial deputies. By the 
law of Hanover the crown devolved in the male line ; at the death 
of William IV. of England, therefore, that monarch was succeeded 
by Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, his eldest surviving 
brother, who was proclaimed king of Hanover on the 24th of 
June, 1837. One of the first acts of his reign was to make 
unpopular changes in the existing constitution. This gave great 
disquietude to some of the legislatures of the minor states in 
Germany, who were conscious on how frail a foundation their own 
representative privileges were erected. The states of Baden 
voted that the abrogation of the Hanoverian constitution was in 
violation of the feudal act of the Germanic league, and their ex¬ 
ample was followed by Bavaria and Saxony. 

Smaller Principalities and States. —Germany contains 
many minor states of some importance. Among these the chief 
are, Baden, on the borders of Switzerland, including, besides 
Carlsruhe the capital, the beautiful city of Manheim. Popu¬ 
lation 1,100,000. Hesse-Cassel, a flourishing territory in the 
north, with a population of 700,000, has Cassel for its capital. 
Darmstadt, a territory on the Rhine, including the fine ancient 
city of Mentz, or Mayence. Brunswick, from whose house the 
British royal family is descended. Weimar, noted for the patro¬ 
nage of men of genius, and considered the literary capital of 
Germany. Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the 
last of which, though small, has given two queens to England. 
Oldenburg also deserves notice. There are besides a "great 
number of very small principalities, which will be found enume¬ 
rated in the list of the German Confederation. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


395 


Austria, —The dominions of the emperor of Austria, formerly- 
called emperor of Germany, is, next to Russia, the largest in 
extent in Europe, and contains besides Austria Proper, part of 
Germany, Hungary, part of Poland, Venice, and Lombardy: 
total about 32,000,000 inhabitants. By the partition of Poland, 
Austria acquired one-sixth part, and 4,000,000 of subjects. Her 
power was much crippled in the wars which she waged against 
Napoleon, but she has now recovered more than she lost. With 
the exception of Russia, no European nation comprises such a 
diversity of tribes, or distinct races of mankind : the most nume¬ 
rous of these races is Sclavonian. The air is in general healthy; 
and the product of the vine is a source of considerable wealth to 
Austria. The capital of this empire is Vienna. The other chief 
towns are Prague, Presburg, Venice, and Milan. The principal 
mountains are, the Tyrolese, the Alps, and the Carpathian ; and 
the rivers are the Danube, the Moldau, and the Drave. 

This great empire consists of the following kingdoms and pro¬ 
vinces, with the annexed population. 


Hungary.. 7,400,000 

Moravia, Austrian Silesia . . . 1,968,713 

Galicia. 4,850,000 

Austria Proper, and Upper and 

Lower. 2,008,978 

Saltzburgh and Berchtolsgaden . 200,000 

Styria ......... 829,731 

Carinthia. 280,000 

Carniola. 420,000 

Friuli and Trieste . . . . ,. 106,000 

Bukowine. 250,000 

Bohemia. 3,698,596 

Transylvania. 1,600,000 

Sclavonia. 500,000 

Croatia. 350,000 

Lombardy, &c. 2,000,000 

Istria. 100,000 

Venetian States. 1,650,000 

Dalmatia. 300,000 

Tyrol .. 762,053 


Total population . . 29,274,071 


Holland and Belgium. —These maritime countries have 
undergone very considerable changes. The former was once a 
flourishing republic, and consisted of Seven United Provinces, 























396 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


forming a part of the seventeen, originally denominated the Ne¬ 
therlands, or Low Countries. The remaining ten, having been 
for many years subject, first to Spain, and then to Austria, after 
the convulsions consequent on the French revolution, were, in 
1814, united with Holland, under a prince of the house of Orange 
Nassau, and formed into the kingdom of the Netherlands. But 
during the last few years, other revolutionary movements have taken 
place, in which the ten provinces have revolted from their allegiance 
to the king of the Netherlands, and chosen Leopold, Prince of 
Saxe-Coburg, as their sovereign. This arrangement, after many 
convulsions, appears, at length, to have assumed a permanent 
character, and the geography of the Netherlands may be considered 
as settled. 

Ihe inhabitants of the United Provinces, called Holland , are 
^ very hardy lace, and make excellent manners. The country 
exhibits aflat surface of fields and meadows, intersected by rivers 
and canals, which are as numerous as roads in other countries, with 
immense banks or dykes, which protect it from the encroachments 
of the sea. Holland is divided into the provinces of North and 
South Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Guelderland, Overyssel, 
JJoenthe, Groningen, Friesland, and North Brabant. The prin¬ 
cipal cities are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Leyden, Haarlem, and 
that large and beautiful village, the Hague. The towns have 
commonly canals of communication, not only between the principal 
streets of each, but between each other. 

Belgium consists of South Brabant, East and West Flanders 
Hamault, Namur, Liege, and part of Limburg and Luxemburg 
rhe principal cities are, Brussels, Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent 

4 non nno’ tT?’ Flu f hi " s ’. & , C - The populatior. is about 
4,000,000. I he foreign trade is almost wholly conducted through 

the port of Antwerp, and consists of woollen cloths, &c. 

France.— This extensive country occupies a commanding 
situation in the centre of Europe, and has always been distin¬ 
guished by the military prowess of its armies, the intrfouino- 
sprint of its government, and the volatile character of its inhabi- 
tants. It is bounded on the north by the British Channel and 

oliand; on the east by the Rhine, Switzerland, and the Alps • 
on the south by the Mediterranean Sea and the Pyrenees; and on 

fa ooonnrv ,‘u A ‘ an ™ ^ Cean ; , a " d contains u P'™rds of 

32 9q 0 ,°00 inhabitants. The climate of France is the most aoree- 

able m Europe; the air is generally temperate, and removed 

from the extremes of heat and cold, and the soil is excellent 

Except m some mountainous tracts, which are chiefly on the 


GEOGRAPHY. 


307 


frontiers, the face of the country is in general flat and well 
watered by many fine rivers. Its chief productions are corn, 
fruit, oil, wine, and most of the luxuries of life. The wines of 
Champagne, Burgundy, and Bordeaux, are well known. Much 
brandy is likewise made here. The government of this country 
is at present a limited monarchy; in its principle, perhaps, more 
nearly approximating to that of Great Britain than any other 
country in the world. Owing, however, to the frequent changes 
which have taken place during the last fifty years, in which its 
political institutions have sustained almost every possible variation, 
from despotism to anarchy, they cannot be considered as by any 
means permanent. France was anciently divided into provinces ; 
but since the revolution in 1789, it has been divided into eighty- 
six departments. Besides Paris, the capital, which in magnitude 
and population is only inferior to London, the principal towns are, 
Lisle, or Lille, Amiens, Rouen, Rlieims, Verdun, Nancy, Strasburg, 
on the north ; Besanyon, Lyons, Grenoble, Montauban, on the 
east; Aix, Avignon, Montpelier, Toulouse, to the south ; Rennes, 
Poitiers, to the west. Its sea-ports in the north and west are 
Dunkirk, Calais, Boulogne, Dieppe, Havre, Cherbourg, St. Malo, 
Morlaix, Brest, LOrient, Nantes, Rochelle, Rochefort, Bordeaux; 
and in the Mediterranean, Marseilles and Toulon. The princi¬ 
pal mountains are the Alps, winch divide it from Italy ; and the 
Pyrenees, which divide it from Spain. The rivers are, the Rhone, 
the Garonne, the Loire, the Seine, and the Somme. The Rhine 
is a boundary between France and Germany only on the eastern 
side near Switzerland. The French are lively in conversation, 
polished, gallant, and brave, but light, inconstant, and vain. They 
pay great attention to the arts and sciences, yet in general their 
knowledge is less profound than brilliant. Public instruction is 
promoted by an university, besides which there is a royal college, 
and many academies. 

At the close of the eighteenth century a memorable revolution 
took place in France, which brought on a long and protracted war 
throughout Europe. In 1792, the destruction of the monarchy 
occurred ; this desperate event was succeeded first by a republican 
government, from 1792 to 1794 ; by a national convention from 
1794 to 1799 ; by an executive directory, consisting of five mem¬ 
bers, from 1799 to 1804; and by consuls. Napoleon ruled as 
emperor from 1804 to 1814. Napoleon again ascended the throne 
and ruled for 100 days, in 1815 ; after which Louis XVIII. was 
restored, and died in 1824. To him succeeded Charles X. who was 
driven from the throne on the 30th of July 1830; and Louis 
Philip, of the Orleans branch, descended from a brother of Louis 


398 YOUNG man's companion. 

XIV., was raised to the throne, with the style and title ol King of 
the French. 

Switzerland is situated in the Alpine regions, between 
Germany, Italy, and France, and consists of twenty-two cantons, 
among which the chief are Zurich, Berne, and Geneva. In this 
country the Rhine and the Rhone take their rise, flowing in 
almost opposite directions ; while the lakes of Constance and 
Geneva are not only among the largest, but the most beautiful in 
Europe. The Swiss are an honest, simple race, fondly attached 
to liberty and their country, robust in their persons, and cou¬ 
rageous in their hearts. The principal towns are, Berne, Basle, 
Zurich, Lucern, Zug, Constance, Geneva, and Lausanne; the last 
two celebrated for the beauty of their situation. I he mountains 
are very numerous. The Alps divide Switzerland from Italy, and 
Mount Blanc, the highest in Europe, is on its immediate border. 
From these mountains masses of ice, called glaciers, descend and 
overwhelm houses, and even villages. 

Italy is an ancient peninsula in the south of Europe, at that 
time the seat of power and civilization. Though much decayed 
it is still a very fine country, blessed in general with a genial and 
not intemperately hot climate, and a rich soil; producing corn, 
wine, and oil, in abundance, with a variety of the choicest fruits : 
it may be styled the garden of Europe, and the parent of its arts 
and civilization. The Italians are a polished, spirited people; 
great politicians, but dissumulators, vindictive, and jealous ; they 
possess much taste for the fine arts, principally painting, music, 
and poetry. But education is rare among the common people. 
The chief mountains, exclusive of the Alps, which form its boun¬ 
dary on the side of Switzerland, are the Appennines, which 
run through its whole extent; and the volcanic mountains, A esu- 
vius and iEtna. Its principal rivers are, the Po, the Arno, the 
Tiber, the Var, and the Adige. The following are the present divi¬ 
sions of Italy since the political changes which have taken place 
in Europe. 1. The states of the church, or dominions of the 
pope; comprehending Bologna, Ferrara, Romagna, Ancona, 
Perugia, Urbino, Ombria, and St. Peter’s Patrimony. 2 . The 
kingdom of the Two Sicilies ; that is, Naples, comprehending the 
Terra di Lavoro, the Abbruzzos, Apulia, and Calabria, and the 
island of Sicily, with several small isles adjacent. 8. The grand 
duchy of Tuscany, governed by an Austrian archduke. 4. The 
kingdom of Sardinia; comprehending Piedmont, Savoy, the 
duchy of Genoa, and the isle of Sardinia. 5. The kingdom of 


GEOGRAPHY. 


3 . 9.9 


Lombardy and Venice, belonging to Austria ; comprehending the 
Milanese, the duchy of Mantua, the Valteline, and the territory of 
Venice, now called the Lombardy Venetian kingdom. 6. The 
duchies of Parma and Placentia, governed by the Empress Maria 
Louisa, widow of Napoleon. 

Italy contains also the small duchies of Modena and Lucca, and 
the very small republic of San Marino.—Rome, the chief city of 
Italy, in latitude 41° 54' north, was once the capital of the civilized 
world, but is sinking fast into decay. Its population under 
Augustus was $,000,000, and its circumference fifty miles, but 
under the pope its population does not exceed 100,000. Florence, 
the capital of Tuscany, has long been regarded as the Athens of 
modern Italy; Milan is the capital of Lombardy; Turin of 
Sardinia; Venice, Mantua, Parma, and Genoa, are also fine cities. 
The kingdom of Naples occupies the south of Italy, and contains 
about 6,000.000 inhabitants. Naples, its capital, is one of the 
largest cities in Europe, and contains about 350,000 inhabitants. 
Sicily, the finest island in Europe, is separated from Calabria by 
the straits of Messina, famous for the Scylla and Charybdis of the 
ancients, the former a rock, the latter a whirlpool. The chief 
towns are Palermo, Messina, and Syracuse. Sardinia, a large but 
poor island, is situated in the centre of the Mediterranean: the 
principal town is Cagliari. Corsica, belonging to France, is 
mountainous, and its chief town is Bastia. The small but 
important island of Malta lies about sixty miles south of Sicily, 
and is celebrated for its fine port, and for the strength of its for¬ 
tifications. It now belongs to Great Britain. Elba, an island of 
Tuscany, is famous as the chosen retreat of the Emperor Napoleon, 
when he abdicated the throne of France in 1814. 

Portugal, the most westerly kingdom of Europe, lies 
between Spain and the Atlantic Ocean. It is divided into six 
provinces. The chief rivers are the Tagus and the Douro. The 
principal towns are Lisbon, the capital, and Oporto. The soil of 
Portugal produces wheat, barley, hemp, and other productions of 
northern climates. The best fruits are, olives, oranges, and lemons. 
Silk is made of a good quality. But the country is very backward 
in manufactures. Portugal has lost the extensive dominions she 
once possessed in South America, Asia, and Africa; the chief of 
these, the territory of Brazil in South America, is now formed 
into an independent state. The Portuguese, like their neighbours 
the Spaniards, are, in their national character, much degraded by 
bigotry and superstition. The government has undergone many 
changes since the French revolution. After the expulsion of the 


400 


young man’s companion. 


French and the general pacification of Europe (1814) the kin?, 
who had taken refuge in Brazil, returned, but this country 
continued to be the scene of internal discord, chiefly through the 
machinations of Don Miguel, the youngest son of John VL who, 
after the death of his father, in 1826, assumed the reins of 
government, which he exercised in the most cruel and despotic 
manner for several years. At length he was compelled to leave 
the country by the troops of his brother, Don Pedro, late emperor 
o Brazil, who before lus death, succeeded in placing his daughter, 
the infanta Donna Maria, on the throne of Portugal 

' o * 

Spain is a country in the south-west of Europe. Though much 
intersected with mountains (which abound in minerals, metals, and 
precious stones) it is remarkable for its fine climate and soil. The 
valleys produce corn, wine, and fruits ; while the more mountain- - 
ous tracts support vast flocks of sheep, of the Merino breed, 
whose wool is so necessary in the manufacture of fine broad cloths. 

1 he foreign trade of Spain comprises a variety of articles, both of 
export and import: the principal of which are wine, brandy, 
lint, olive, cottons, corn, and naval stores. In summer the 
climate is hot and sultry, especially in the central provinces. 
Spam is divided into fourteen districts or provinces, containing 
about 12,000,000 inhabitants. Granada and Murcia on the 
south are the most fertile tracts in Europe ; but Spain has latterly 
from bad government, and want of spirit and industry in the 
inhabitants, become, comparatively, a poor country. The chief 
towns are Madrid, the capital; Barcelona, Seville, Granada, 
Malaga, Saragossa, Alicant, Toledo, Salamanca, and Cadiz. The 
principal rivers are, the Ebro, the Tagus, and the Douro. The 
chief mountains are the Pyrenees, which separate Spain from 
b ranee. On a promontory, in the south of Spain, stands Gibral¬ 
tar, which has been in the possession of the English since 1704 
and is so defended by nature and art, as to be considered impreg- 
nable. _ The chief islands lying near Spain are, Majorca, Minorca, 
and Ivica, called the Balearic Isles, and deservedly celebrated for 
their fertility and fine climate. The government, like that of 
Portugal has undergone many changes. The compulsory abdica- 
tion of the royal family of Spain by Buonaparte, which took place 
m IoU8, was followed by a general insurrection, the well-known 
peninsular war, and the evacuation of the Spanish territory by 
the French in 1818, when Ferdinand VII. was restored. The 
first acts of Ferdinand were to revive the inquisition, and other 
aouses, and banish and imprison those men who, to the best of 
their power, had contributed to his re-establishment. The dissatis- 


GEOGRAPHY 


401 


faction which his conduct produced, together with the contrariety 
existing in the political views of the great body of the people, have 
rendered Spain for some years a scene of civil commotion. The 
country is divided into opposing factions, which have threatened 
the extinction of all social order. The recent death of the Spanish 
monarch, and the accession of the present queen, however, hold 
out the expectation of the speedy amelioration of these evils. 

Turkey in Europe. —This country, on which nature has 
lavished a variety of blessings, at one time ranked high in the scale 
of nations, but owing to the despotism and misconduct of its govern¬ 
ment, it has lost some of its finest possessions, including the 
kingdom of Greece, now separated from it, and its power and in¬ 
fluence are rapidly on the decline. The climate is fine, though rather 
hot; and the soil is naturally abundantly productive; but under the 
indolent, enslaved, and sensual Turks, agriculture is neglected, and 
the very air is contaminated by filth, so as to give rise to frequent 
visitations of the plague. The government is despotic, under the 
Grand Seignior, who is master of the lives and property of his sub¬ 
jects. The provinces are governed by Pashas, many of whom are 
nearly independent of their imperial master. The principal provinces 
are, Bulgaria, Rumelia, which includes Macedonia and Thessaly, 
and the extensive territories which constitute Albania. The 
principalities of Moldavia, Wallachia, Bosnia, and Servia, along 
the Danube, are governed by princes appointed by the Porte, to 
whom they pay tribute. The metropolis of Turkey is Constan¬ 
tinople, finely situated in 41° north latitude, between the sea of 
Marmora and the Black Sea, and one of the most considerable 
cities in the world. Adrianople is the second city in European 
Turkey. Salonica has a great trade; Schumla, Silistria, Nicopolis, 
and Belgrade, are strong frontier fortresses. Wheat, maize, rice, 
cotton, silk, and tobacco, are all natural to this country; they are 
raised in it at present, but the extent of their culture might be 
carried much further. The chief river in European Turkey is the 
Danube. The chief mountains are Hsenus, or the Balkan, a long 
lofty range, which forms a barrier against Russia; Pindus and 
Olympus, in Thessaly; Mount Athos, celebrated in classic history, 
is now inhabited by thousands of monks and hermits. The 
Turkish islands were very numerous; but most of them are 
annexed to the new state of Greece, and the only important one 
which she retains is Candia, a fertile island, anciently celebrated 
and powerful under the name of Crete. The population of 
Turkey in Europe is estimated at 10,000,000. The Turks are 
idle and ignorant; devoted to their religion, which is Mahometan* 

9 v 


402 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION, 

and the rule of their faith, the Koran; but inclined to hospitality, 
when the more malignant passions of jealousy and revenge are 
not excited. The lower class are almost devoid of education, and 
in the arts they are equally backward. 

The possessions of the Turks were formerly very considerable. 
They were originally a Tartar tribe, who having subdued their 
neighbouring states their dominions were united under Othman, or 
Osman, who assumed the title of Sultan, and established his 
empire at Prusa, in Bithynia, about the year 1800. His succes¬ 
sors extended their conquests over the adjacent parts of Asia, 
Africa, and Europe. Adrianople was taken by them as early as 
a.d. 1360. In 1453 Constantinople was taken from the Greeks, 
and became the capital of the Turkish empire. After the battle 
of Pultava, and the retreat of Charles XII. of Sweden into 
Turkey, in 1704, the czar, Peter the Great, advanced against the 
'Turkish frontier: he was, however, obliged to sign the treaty of 
Pruth, which stipulated the surrender of Azoph and some other 
fortresses. Since that time the Turks have experienced many 
reverses, and recent events, particularly the loss of Greece, and the 
cession of large tracts of territory to Russia, have shown the 
instability of their power in Europe. The late Sultan Mahmoud 
formed plans for the civilization and improvement of his subjects, 
but his recent death has left it doubtful how far these attempts will 
be ultimately successful. 

Greece, the most celebrated country of the ancient world, has 
for many ages been in an oppressed and miserable state. Re¬ 
cently, however, the Greeks made a brave stand for their inde¬ 
pendence ; and being supported by the great Christian powers, 
they have compelled Turkey to withdraw her claims. Since the 
establishment of its present constitutional kingdom, amidst many dif¬ 
ficulties and obstacles to its improvement, it has made considerable 
advances, and commerce is pursued with great activity. Learning, 
where it once flourished with such unrivalled splendour, had fallen 
into a state of total extinction. With wealth and the spirit of 
independence, however, has arisen a strong desire to revive the 
ancient glory of their country, and some progress has been made. 
The new state of Greece comprehends the Morea (the ancient 
Peloponnesus), with the territory of the ancient Attica and 
Thebes, as far south as the gulfs of Arta and Yolo. It includes 
also the islands of Negropont, Hydra, and the Cyclades. The 
population is not supposed to exceed 700,000; but it is expected 
to increase under a free government. Otho, prince of Bavaria, 


GEOGRAPHY. 


403 


lias been chosen king. Athens, recently chosen as the capital, ig 
still a considerable town, adorned with the most splendid ruins. 
Thebes, Corinth, and Sparta, are now only villages. The chief 
modern towns are, Tripolizza, Napoli di Romania, Patras, and 
Missolonglii. 

On the south-west of Greece lies the confederacy of the Seven 
Islands, consisting of Corfu, Leucadia, Cephalonia, Ithaca, Zante, 
Cerigo, and others, having an independent government, but under 
the military protection of Great Britain. 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

This United Kingdom, consisting of the two large islands of Great 
Britain and Ireland, besides various small islands, is situated to 
the west of the continent; it is divided into England, Scotland, 
and Wales, formerly each a kingdom of itself. England and 
Scotland were united in the year 1707, when the whole island was 
called Great Britain ; Ireland was not united with this country till 
the commencement of the present century. Great Britain is 
about 600 miles long, and 300 broad ; and at the census of 1831, 
appeared to contain 13,394,574 inhabitants. The line and 
admirable constitution enjoyed by Great Britain, the intelligence, 
industry, and enterprise of her people, have raised her to the 
highest pitch of greatness : her maritime power, her manufacturing 
industry, and her commerce with every quarter of the globe, are 
completely unrivalled. 

ENGLAND. 

England is divided into forty counties, or shires, and these 
counties are classed into six circuits for the administration of 
justice. The counties thus classed, with their county or assize 
towns, are as under : 

Northern Circuit. 

Counties . Chief Towns. 

Northumberland.Newcastle 

Durham.Durham 

Cumberland .... . . v . Carlisle 

Westmoreland.Appleby and Kenda 

Yorkshire.York 

Lancashire.Lancaster 

Midland Circuit. 

Warwickshire.Warwick 

Leicestershire. Leicester 

Derbyshire.Derby 










404 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Counties. Chief Towns , 

Nottinghamshire ..... Nottingham 

Lincolnshire.Lincoln 

Rutland.Oakham 

Northamptonshire .... Northampton 

Oxford Circuit. 

Oxfordshire.Oxford 

Buckinghamshire .... Buckingham 


O 

Gloucestershire 

Worcestershire 

Monmouthshire 

Herefordshire 

Shropshire 

Staffordshire . 


Gloucester 

Worcester 

Monmouth 

Hereford 

Shrewsbury 

Stafford 


Bedfordshire 
Berkshire 

Huntingdonshire . 
Cambridgeshire 
Suffolk . . . , 
Norfolk . . . . 


Norfolk Circuit. 


Home Circuit. 


Essex 

Hertfordshire 
Kent . . 

Surrey 
Sussex 


Bedford 

Reading & Abingdon 

Huntingdon 

Cambridge 

Ipswich 

Norwich 


Chelmsford & Colchester 
Hertford 
Maidstone 
Guildford 
Chichester 
Western Circuit. 

Winchester 
Salisbury 
Dorchester 
Wells 
Exeter 

Launceston, Bodmin 

M| ddlesex and Cheshire have distinct courts of their own and 
are called Counties Palatine. The counties of Durham and 
Lancashire are also Palatine. nd 

1 Pj' don ’ J the metro P° Iis of Great Britain, is in 51J. no rth 
latitude, and contains 1,400,000 inhabitants. It is the largest titv 
and the gjeatest seat of commerce, in the world. ° " ’ 

t ,jn7 principal towns in England are, Birmingham Shef 
field, Dudley, and Wolverhampton, famous’ for “Z .ami std 


Hampshire 

Wiltshire 

Dorsetshire 

Somerset 

Devon 

Cornwall 















GEOGRAPHY. 


405 


goods; Manchester, Preston, Bolton, and Blackburn, for cotton 
works; Leeds, Wakefield, Halifax, and Exeter, for woollen 
cloth ; Norwich and Coventry, for silks; Nottingham, Leicester, 
and Mansfield, for stockings ; Wilton and Kidderminster, for 
carpets; Bridport and Plymouth, for coarse flax and hempen 
goods. 

Staffordshire and Leicestershire are famous for earthenware and 
china; Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire for lace; Suffolk and 
Somersetshire for linen cloth. Tin is produced from Cornwall; 
lead and copper from the south-western counties, and from Derby¬ 
shire and Yorkshire; iron and coals from the northern counties, 
and from Wales. 

The dock yards for the navy are, Portsmouth, Plymouth, 
Chatham, Sheerness, Woolwich, Deptford, and Milford. The 
trading ports are London, Liverpool, Bristol, Hull, Yarmouth, 
Falmouth, Sunderland, Lynn, Swansea, and Whitehaven. 

There are two archbishoprics, Canterbury and York ; and 
twenty-four bishops, including two Welsh bishoprics. The uni¬ 
versities are Oxford and Cambridge. 

The principal rivers in England are, the Severn, the Thames, 
the Humber, the Mersey, the Trent, and the Medway. 

The Isle of Wight on the southern coast is famous for its 
picturesque beauty; Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark, are 
populous small islands near the coast of France. The Isle of 
Man is in the Irish Sea. The numerous Scilly Islands stretch 
beyond the promontory of Cornwall. On the coast of Northum¬ 
berland lie the Holly, Fern, and Coquet Islands; and in Kent 
are Thanet and Sheppey. 

The chief mountains and hills in England are, the Cheviot, 
between England and Scotland ; Pendle, in Lancashire; Fells, in 
Cumberland and Yorkshire ; Malvern, in Worcestershire ; 
Mendip, in Somersetshire ; the Peak, in Derbyshire; and the 
Wrekin, in Shropshire. 


WALES. 

Wales, inhabited chiefly by the descendents of the ancient 
Britons, most of whom still speak the Welsh language, is divided 
into twelve counties, six north, and six south. 

The Northern Counties are :— 

Counties. Chief Towns 

Flintshire.Flint 

Denbighshire . .Denbigh 



406 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


Counties . 

Chief Town*. 

Caernarvonshire . 

. . . Caernarvon 

Anglesea. 


Merionethshire . 


Montgomeryshire 

. . . Mongtomery 

Southern Counties are :— 

Cardiganshire 

. . . Cardigan 

Radnorshire .... 


Pembrokeshire 


Caermarthenshire . . 


Brecknockshire . 

. . . Brecknock 

Glamorganshire . . . 

. . . Cardiff 


The island of Anglesea forms one of the counties of Wales ; 
and from Holyhead, on the western side of this island, is the 
common passage to Dublin. The population, in 1831, amounted 
to 805,236. 

The Welsh are generally frugal, hospitable, and brave; some¬ 
what irritable in their temper, and attached to conviviality, 

SCOTLAND. 

< Scotland, the northern division of Great Britain, is inha¬ 
bited by a brave, industrious, thrifty, and temperate, race of 
people,, amounting, in 1831, to 2,367,807. It is divided 
into thirty-three counties, as under: 

The Northern Counties are ten 


Counties . Chief Towns. 

Orkney.Kirkwall 

Caithness.Wick 

Sutherland.Strathy, Darnock 

H° ss .Ross, Taine 

Cromarty.Cromarty 

Nairn.Nairn 

Moray, or Elgin.Elgin 

Bamff.Bamff 

Aberdeen.Aberdeen 

Inverness.Inverness 

The Middle Counties are nine :— 

Perth .Perth 

All S us .• • . Forfar, Montrose 

















GEOGRAPHY. 


407 


Counties. 

Chief Towns. 

Mearns, or Kincardine . . 

. Bervie 

Argyle. 

. Inverary 

Dumbarton .. 

. Dumbarton 

Stirling •. 

. Stirling 

Clackmannan. 

Clackmannan 

Kinross. 

. Kinross 

Fife. 


Southern Counties are fourteen 

• ______ 

• 

Bute. 

. R othsay 

Renfrew. 

. Renfrew, Greenock 

Lanark. 

. Glasgow, Lanark 

Linlithgow. 

Linlithgow 

Edinburgh. 

. Edinburgh 

Haddington. 

. Haddington, Dunbar 

Peebles. 

. Peebles 

Berwick. 

. Dunse, Berwuck 

Ayr. 

. Ayr 

Wigton. 

. Wigton 

Kircudbright. 

. Kircudbright 

Dumfries. 

. Dumfries 

Selkirk . 

. Selkirk 

Roxburgh. 

, Roxburgh 


Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews, are 
the celebrated seats of learning : Glasgow is no less distin¬ 
guished for its extensive manufactures and commerce. 

The islands adjoining to Scotland are the Shetland, the 
Orkney, the Hebrides (Hebudes,) or Western Islands, and 
those of Arran and Bute, which form one of the counties. 

The most considerable lakes are Loch Tay ; Loch Lomond, 
which contains several islands; Loch Awe, and Loch Ness. 
The highest mountains are Ben Lomond and Ben Nevis. 

The climate of Scotland is cold, but salubrious ; in many 
places, particularly in the Highlands, there are lofty mountains 
covered with heath ; in the Lowlands and the southern district 
are many rich and cultivated tracts. It produces corn, cattle, 
and sheep ; has some valuable mines of lead, iron, and coal; and 
many important manufactures are established in different parts, 
which increase its wealth, and the comforts of the inhabitants. 
The Scotch are intelligent, frugal, and industrious; brave in war, 
and capable of undergoing the greatest fatigues. 






















40S 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


IRELAND 


Ireland is divided into four large provinces; viz. Ulster north¬ 
ward, Leinster eastward, Munster southward, and Connaught 
westward. The population, in 1831, amounted to 7,734,365." 


The province of Leinster contains twelve counties :— 


Counties . 

Chief Towns. 

Dublin . . . 

Dublin 

Louth. 

Drogheda 

Wicklow. 

. . . Wicklow 

Wexford. 

Wexford 

Longford .... 

. . . Longford 

East Meath .... 

. . . Trim 

West Meath 

. . . Mullingar 

King’s County 

Philipstown 

Queen’s County 

. . . Maryborough 

Kilkenny .... 

. . . Kilkenny 

Kildare. 

. . . Naas and A thy 

Carlow. 

. . Carlow 


The province of Ulster contains nine counties:—* 

Down 
Armagh 
Monaghan 
Cavan 
Antrim . 

Londonderry 
Tyrone . . 

Fermanagh 
Donegal 


Downpatrick 

Armagh 

Monaghan 

Cavan 

Carrickfergus 

Derry 

Omagh 

Enniskillen 

Lifford 


The province of Connaught contains five counties: — 

Leitrim .Leitrim 

Roscommon.Roscommon 

Ma y°.Newport 

SIi g°.Sligo 

Galway .Galway 

The province of Munster contains six counties :_ 


Clare 

Cork 


. Ennis 
. Cork 




















I 


GEOGRAPHY. 


409 


Counties. Chief Towns . 

Kerry.Tralee 

Limerick.Limerick 

Tipperary.Clonmell 

Waterford.Waterford 

Of the population of Ireland, a very small proportion are of 
the established church, the larger proportion being catholics and 
dissenters. Dublin is the capital, and contains its only university. 
Cork, Londonderry, Limerick, Waterford, and Belfast, are famous 
as ports and places of trade. The principal rivers are, the Shannon, 
the Blackwater, the Boyle, and the Liffey. The principal lake 
is Killarney, the most beautiful in the British dominions. The 
climate is very moist, but not unwholesome; the soil in most 
places is rich, and if properly cultivated would yield a very large 
increase. The Irish are polite, hospitable, and brave, but hasty 
in their disposition. Many political and religious disabilities 
have, for centuries, repressed their native energies ; but some of 
these have been relieved, and it is hoped others will also be 
removed, so as to facilitate the progress of education and general 
improvement. 


Asia. 


Asia is one of the principal, and, in some respects, the most 
interesting quarter of the globe. It was the nursery of the human 
race in the earliest ages; the seat of the great empires of Babylon, 
Assyria, and Persia; and the scene of our Saviour's labours on 
earth. The Christian religion, though first promulgated in Asia, 
had been long banished from it; but through the labours of the 
missionaries it has gained many adherents throughout all Asia by 
means of translations of the Bible. Even in China, Christians 
are to be found; and in short everywhere except in Japan, where 
they have been entirely banished since the year 1637. The 
Asiatics are chiefly Mahometans, or pagans, and, among the latter, 
idolatry puts on a different form in almost every district. In 
Thibet, the Grand Lama is worshipped; in China, the deism of 
Confucius prevails ; and in India, Bramah is the object of worship, 
in connexion with many superstitions. 

Asia is bounded on the north by the Frozen Ocean ; on the 
east by the Pacific Ocean; on the south by the Indian Ocean ; 
and on the v r est by the Red Sea, the Mediterranean, and Europe ; 
extending about 7,200 miles from east to west, and 5,700 from 
north to south, and containing 450,000,000 inhabitants. 

3 G 





410 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


Asia may be considered as the richest and most fruitful part 
of the world. It abounds in corn, wine, and fruits, of all sorts 
It furnishes every thing necessary for life, health, and enjoyment; 
and supplies the other parts of the world with spices, drugs, 
diamonds, precious stones, silks, muslins, coffee, tea, &c. &c. 
The Asiatics are in general effeminate, luxurious, indolent, and 
servile, but they evince considerable genius in various arts and 
sciences. 

The principal governments of Asia are those of Russia, Turkey, 
China, Persia, Hindostan, or India, and Japan. In this quarter 
of the globe the boundaries of states are continually changing, 
owing to the frequent wars and other causes. The following is a 
summary of the most considerable nations :— 


Nations. 

Russian Tartary, Siberia, &c. 
Circassia and Georgia (annexed 

Russia). 

Independent Tartary . 

Chinese Tartary 
Thibet, or Tibet .... 
r Natolia, or Asia Minor 
Armenia .... 


a* 

S 




< 


Diarbekir and Algesira 


Kurdistan 
Irak-Arabi . 

Syria . . 

k Palestine, or the Holy La 

Arabia. 

Persia. 

Cabul. 

Hindostan (native powers) 

British India .... 

Birman Empire .... 

Siam. 

Cochin-China and Tonquin 
Chinese Empire 
Japanese Empire . 

Eastern Archipelago . . 


nd 


Chief Towns. 

. Astrachan and Tobolsk 

t0 1 Teffiis 

. Samarcand 
. Cashgar 
. Lassa 

. Smyrna, Bursa 
. Erzerum 
. Diarbekir, Mosul 
. Bitlis, Altun-kupri 
. Bassora, Bagdad 
. Aleppo, Damascus 
. Jerusalem 
. Sana, Medina, Mecca 
. Teheran, Ispahan 
. Cabul, Candahar 
. Hydrabad, Gwalior 
( Calcutta, Benares, Surat, 

X Madras, Bombay 
. Ava, Pegu, Rangoon 
. Bankok 

. Hue-foo, Kesho, and Saigon 
. Pekin, Nankin, and Canton 
. Jeddo and Meaco 
. Batavia 


The greatest part of Asia lies within the torrid and temperate 
zones; the degree of heat in general is therefore very considerable ; 
and the soil, aided by the powerful rays of the sun, is capable of 
producing the richest fruits, and that in great abundance. 

The islands belonging to Asia are the Eastern Archipelago, 















GEOGRAPHY. 


411 


containing the islands of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, the 
Philippines, and the Spice or Molucca islands ; the Aleutian, the 
Kuriles, the isles of Japan, Formosa, Ceylon, the Maldives, &c. 

The oceans and seas adjoining Asia are the Northern, Pacific, 
and Indian Oceans; the Black, Red, Arabian, Chinese, and 
Yellow Seas; the seas of Kamtschatka, Okhotsk, and Corea ; the 
gulfs of Persia, Siam, and Tonquin ; the bay of Bengal, the 
Levant, and the Archipelago. The Caspian Sea, bounded on the 
south by Persia, is properly an immense lake, having no connexion 
with any other portion of water: so is the Aral, to the east of it. 

The principal straits of Asia are, Behring’s, which separate it 
from America; the Straits of Malacca ; of Sunda, between Java 
and Sumatra ; of Ormus, between Persia and Arabia; and of 
Babelmandeb, which separates Arabia from Africa. 

The chief rivers of Arabia are, the Kiang Ku, the Hoang Ho, 
the Lena, the Yenisei, the Obi, the Amoor, the Burrampooter, 
the Ganges, the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Indus. 

The principal Asiatic mountains are, the Himalaya, north of 
Bengal, 28,000 feet high, and the highest in the world; the 
Uralian, the Altaian, the Sayausk, the Alak, the Taurus, the 
Ghauts of Hindostan, the Caucasian, and the Ararat, near the 
Caspian Sea. 

Russia in Asia. —This country occupies the whole of the 
northern part of the continent of Asia ; including Siberia, the 
Kurile islands, and the countries on the Caspian. 

Siberia is divided into two great governments, that of Tobolsk 
on the west, and Irkutsk in the east. This vast extent of land, 
containing 8,500,000 square miles, is not supposed to contain 
above 6,000,000 of barbarous inhabitants, chiefly Tartars, called 
Cossacks, Kalmucs, &c. A great portion of it being included in 
the frigid zone, its situation nearly excludes it from all communi¬ 
cation with the civilized parts of the world, yet Russia has made 
exertions to improve it. The principal cities are Tobolsk and 
Irkutsk. The produce of the north consists of furs and skins; 
but in the south there is abundance of corn, fruits, wine, &c. 
The Obi is the chief river ; the Lena and the Yenisei are also of 
great extent. The sea north of Siberia is filled with ice, and is 
commonly unnavigable. 

The countries on the Caspian, and extending to the Black Sea, 
are chiefly Astrachan, Georgia, and Circassia. The last two are 
traversed by the great mountain range of Caucasus, the highest 
pinnacle of which, Elbourz, is 18,000 feet high. In its heights 
are many rude independent tribes. The Circassians are celebrated 


t 


412 YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

for the bravery of the men and the beauty of the females. 
Numerous slaves of both sexes are imported from these countries 
into Persia and Turkey. The chief cities are Astrachan and 
Derbend on the Caspian; and Tefflis, the capital of Georgia. 
Most of this territory has been conquered from Persia. 

Turkey in Asia. —This extensive territory includes the 
greater part of the ancient empires and kingdoms of Babylonia, 
Assyria, Armenia, Lydia, Syria, and Judea. It is bounded on 
the west by the Mediterranean, and the straits which connect it 
with the Euxine. On the north it has the Black Sea and the 
Caucasian territory. To the east is Persia; and to the south a 
portion of the empire, nominally at least, touches the Persian 
Gulf, but is circumscribed by Arabia. The Turkish Asiatic em¬ 
pire has been divided into Palestine (or the Holy Land), Syria, 
Asia Minor, and the provinces on the Euphrates. This country, 
interesting in an historical point of view, as being that portion of 
our globe where the transactions recorded in the earliest part of 
Scripture took place; is, owing to the jealous disposition of the 
inhabitants, but little known. The principles and mode of 
government are the same in Asiatic as in European Turkey. 
I he pashas, invested with the command of extensive territories, 
receive entire the power of the despot from whom they derive 
their appointment. Even Asia Minor, now the centre of Turkish 
power, has been the seat oi formidable rebellions; and Paswan 
Oglan long governed an extensive tract of its western districts 
with little or no control from the Porte. The more remote 
pashalics of Acra and Bagdad have almost shaken off the yoke. 
An attempt has been made bv the pasha of Egypt to wrest these 
territories from the Porte ; but its final issue is not yet ascertained. 
This state of things has rendered abortive the capacities given by 
nature to this region for the production of almost every species 
of wealth. In most of the districts culture is rendered insecure 
by the oppressions of the pashas, and the ravages of the Arabs, 
against which the government cannot, or at least does not, afford 
protection. Hence, in many parts, particularly in the tracts behind 
Jordan and Lebanon, and in Mesopotamia, which were formerly 
covered with the richest harvests, no traces of fertility remain, 
except in the overgrown and deserted pastures. The state of 
Asiatic Turkey as to religion, learning, and manners, so far as re¬ 
spects the ruling people, is similar to that of European Turkey. They 
present that austere, uniform, and gloomy character, which the 
precepts of Mahomet tend to form, and which is produced in its 
utmost purity in the cities of Turkey. The native and subject 


GEOGRAPHY. 


413 


races, however, exhibit marked distinctions. The high and un¬ 
cultivated table lands in the interior of Asia Minor are occupied 
by a wandering and pastoral race called Turcomans. When 
summoned to fight under the banner of the empire, or to unsheath 
the sword against the infidels, they are prompt in obeying the call, 
and form the main military strength of Turkey. They serve a 
short campaign without pay, but with little ardour, and with full 
license of plunder. 

The Chinese Empire is, next to Russia, the largest empire in 
the world ; celebrated for the great antiquity of its government; 
for its crowded and industrious population ; its fine manufactures, 
and some peculiar productions, (of which tea is the principal, and 
was almost the exclusive, article of import by the East India Com¬ 
pany before the trade was laid open) ; for the extent of its inland 
navigation ; and for its jealous and extensive commercial policy. 
This empire consists of three principal divisions; viz. 1. China 
Proper ; 2. Chinese Tartary; and 3. The region of Thibet. 
The Corea, formerly considered a peninsula, but now discovered 
to be a group of small islands, is also subject to China, and is 
considered as a part of it. The empire is bounded on the north 
by Great Tartary; on the south by the ocean and the peninsula 
on this side the Ganges ; on the east by the ocean ; on the west 
by the Birman empire ; extending about 4,900 miles in length, 
and 2,000 in breadth, and containing a population, according to the 
most authentic accounts, of more than 155,000,000 of souls. 

China Proper extends from the Great Wall in the north, to 
the Chinese Sea in the south, and from the shores of the Pacific 
Ocean to Thibet. The chief cities are, Pekin, Nankin, Singan, 
and Canton. The Great Wall, though built two thousand years 
ago, is but little decayed: it is fifteen hundred miles long, and 
broad enough for five horsemen to travel upon it abreast. China 
contains rich mines of all the precious metals. It produces 
abundance of corn, rice, tea, and fruit; and is famous for its in¬ 
genious manufactures of silks, porcelain, earthenware, paper, &c. 
Its interior commerce is very vigorous, and the canals numerous 
and magnificent. 

Chinese Tartary is included between the Great Wall of China 
and Siberia, and between the Must-tag, or Cloudy Mountains, and 
the Pacific Ocean. It is inhabited chiefly by the Mandshurs and 
Mongols, of the number of which we are destitute of all positive 
data f the former conquered China i;i 1644, and under their 
government the empire still continues. 


414 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


Thibet .—Our knowledge of Thibet is extremely imperfect, and 
is confined to an account of the very few points which have been 
visited by European travellers. Lassa, or Hlassa, the capital, is 
situated in the finest part of Thibet; an extended valley bordered 
by stupendous mountain ranges. The city, independent of its 
chief ornament, which is the temple of Pootala, is represented as 
handsome and opulent. Here all the tops of the mountains are 
covered during the night with snow, which melts in the heat of 
the day, and thus fills the beds of numberless torrents. The 
sheep has a very thick and heavy fleece ; the goat has at the 
root of his long shaggy hair, a very fine fur interspersed ; while 
the cow has a substance of the same sort, little inferior in warmth 
and softness. The celebrated shawl goat is another peculiar pro¬ 
duction of Thibet. These creatures are of various colours, black, 
white, a faint bluish tinge, and of a shade somewhat lighter than 
a fawn. They have straight horns, and are of a lower stature 
than the smallest s'heep in England. The material used for the 
manufacture of shawls, is of a light, firm texture, and grows next 
the skin, having over it a covering of long coarse hair, which 
preserves the softness of the interior coat. The most estimable 
product is gold, which is found nearly pure, in' the form of dust, 
and sometimes in large pieces. Copper is drawn from the mines 
in considerable quantities, as a material for the manufacture of 
idols, gongs, and sacred instruments. The manufactures of 
Thibet are rude, and only adapted for immediate consumption; 
but commerce exists on a considerable scale, and under some 
striking aspects. It is entirely inland, and carried on through perils 
and difficulties, only equalled by those of an opposite nature, to be 
encountered in crossing the burning sands of Africa. Thibet thus 
maintains, however, a commerce of some extent, by the export of 
gold, tincal, musk, shawl-wool, and sheep-skins; while from 
Bengal it imports cloth, particularly woollen, tobacco, spices, and 
toys; from China, tea, porcelain, and silk. 

The Chinese islands are very numerous, and scattered along 
the southern and eastern coast. The largest are Taywan, or 
Formosa, and Hainan. The islands of Loo-Choo, a considerable 
group, between Formosa and Japan, constitute a small kingdom, 
subject to China. The chief rivers of China are the Hoang-ho, 
and the Kiang-ku, each about 2000 miles long, and among the 
largest in the world. 

Tiie Japanese Empire. —Japan, which consists of three 
great islands, Niphon, Kiusiu, and Sikokf, surrounded by a 
multitude of smaller islands, forms an extensive, rich, populous, 


SEOGRAPHY. 


415 


nnd remarkable empire; the chief towns are Jeddo, Meaco, the 
spiritual capital, and Nangasaki. This empire trades only with 
the Chinese, and prohibits all other foreign intercourse under pain 
ol death. The religion of the Japanese is idolatrous. The govern¬ 
ment is a monarchy, restrained by the priesthood. The whole 
population is 20,000,000, who live in a state of civilization ; the 
arts and sciencies being much cultivated among them. The 
climate is fine, the face of the country beautiful, and agriculture is 
held in high estimation. In all respects the Japanese is a great 
and interesting empire ; but, holding no intercourse, it is little 
known to foreign nations. 

India is bounded on the west of Persia; on the north by 
Tartary and China; and on the east and south by the Indian 
Ocean ; and derives its name from the river Indus. It has been 
divided into two great portions: the peninsula of India on this 
side the Ganges ; and the peninsula beyond the Ganges. 

India beyond the Ganges .— This comprises an immense 
tract of country, formerly very little known to Europeans, and 
which has recently been subject to great revolutions. It contains 
the British Territories, the Birman Empire, Siam, and the empire 
of Cochin China. 

1. The British territories were obtained by treaty in 
1826, shortly after the successful war against the Birmans. They 
consist of Assam, Arracan, Mergui, and Tenasserim, which, with 
Malacca, obtained from the Dutch in 1824, in exchange for some 
districts in the islands, comprehend nearly the whole eastern coast 
of the Bay of Bengal. They are in many parts fertile, but rudely 
cultivated. On a small island at the southern extremity, Britain 
has founded the town of Singapore, which has become remarkably 
flourishing. She has also founded Amherst Town, in Tenasserim ; 
and has a settlement at Prince of Wales Island near Malacca. 

2. The Birman Empire consists of the kingdom of Ava and 
Pegu, and was very powerful, till humbled in the late contest with 
Britain. It is traversed from north to south by the great river 
Irawaddy; and the territory is productive, particularly in teak 
timber, a valuable species, more durable than the European oak. 
The Burmese are brave, lively, and inquisitive. Ummerapoora 
was the capital till lately, when the seat of government was 
transferred to Ava. Before the Burmese \var this empire com¬ 
prised almost half the region described as India beyond the 


416 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Ganges; but at the close of that war Arracan, half of Martaban, 
lavoy, Tenasserim, and the Mergui isles, were ceded to the 
British government, and Junk Ceylon, recovered by the Siamese, 
while Assam and all the adjacent petty states have been liberated 
from its yoke. The Burmese empire is subdivided into provinces 
and districts, of the internal state of which little is known. 
According to a Burmese account the provinces south of Prome 
contain 160 townships, and about 2,080 villages, with a population 
of 1,750,000. The commerce of this empire has been greatly 
extended since the conclusion of the war, and the occupation and 
conquest of a part of the territory by the British. The principal, 
and indeed, almost the only port of foreign trade is Rangoon. 

o. Siam consists of a fertile valley between two ranges of 
mountains, and watered by the river Meinam. It is well°fitted 

for sugar, rice, and other tropical products. Bankok, is the 
capital. 

4. Cochin China. — The eastern countries of Cambodia, 
Tsiompa, and Tonquin, have all within the last thirty years, been 
subject to Cochin-China or Anam. The chief river is the 
Maykaung, which flows through Cambodia. Tonquin is the most 
fertile vand populous of these countries; and its capital, Kesho, 
the laigest of the cities; but both are little known. 

India within the Ganges , or ffindostan .—'The name Hin¬ 
dustan is Persian, and is derived from Hindoo, black, and st’han. 
Place. _ This celebrated country has been famous, in all ages, for 
its civilization, produce, manufactures, and wealth. It contains 
about 140,000,000 inhabitants, more than 120,000,000 of 
which are either subjects, allies, or tributaries of Great Britain. 
It comprises the whole of what was once called the Mogul empire 
the capital of which is Delhi. This empire is, however, now 
extinct, and much of its territories subject to Britain. 

India, under British government, is divided into three presi¬ 
dencies: Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. The presidency of 
Calcutta includes the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, Allahabad, 
Agra, and Helm. Calcutta is now the largest city, ranking as 
the capital of Judea. The Presidency of Madras comprises °the 
greater part of the coast of Coromandel, including the Carnatic 
the Circars, and various other detached districts/ Madras is a 
large city, though not equal to Calcutta. Bombay is the smallest 
of the presidencies, consisting of various detached‘ districts in the 
west of India. The city of that name, situated on an island, is 


GEOGRAPHY. 


417 


the seat of a great trade, carried on both by British and foreign 
merchants. 

The powers held in vassalage by Britain are chiefly the follow¬ 
ing:—the Nizam, or Soubah of the Deccan, who governs the 
greater part of that southern table-land so called. The Rajah of 
Mysore ; its former rulers, Hyder and Tippoo, were the most 
inveterate enemies of Britain. Of the Mahratta princes, the 
Rajah of Sattarah had been dethroned and imprisoned bv his 
generals, but Britain, after overcoming them, drew him from 
confinement, and assigned to him a considerable territory. The 
Rajah of Berar resides at Nagpoor, and is a determined enemy of 
Britain, but reduced to complete subjection. The king of Oude, 
who once ranked as vizier to the Mogul, still governs that fine 
province lying to the south of the Ganges. The Rajpoot chiefs, 
who rule over Ajmere, an extensive hilly province to the west of 
Agra, are rather protected by Britain than subject to her. The 
powers still independent of Britain are the following: Scindia, 
the .most potent of the Maliratta chiefs ; Nepaul, comprising most 
of the territory on the southern side of the Himalaya mountains; 
the Seikhs, a confederacy, once religious, and now political, who, 
under their chief, Runjeet Sing, are at present masters of the 
fine western provinces of Lahore and Moultan, on the Indus; 
Sinde, a flat but fertile territory, at the mouth of the Indus, and 
intersected by the branches of that river. 

British India is ruled by the East India Company, who draw 
from it a revenue of about 22,000,00(E. stealing, and maintain 
an army of 230,000 men, chiefly natives, called spahis, but more 
commonly sepoys, commanded by European officers. The Com¬ 
pany had formerly a commercial monopoly, but the trade has 
been opened to all British subjects. 

The chief rivers of Hindostan ar* the Indus, the Ganges, 
and the Burrampooter; the two latter nse in Thibet. The Ganges 
is held sacred among the Hindoos, and many religious rites are 
performed in it. 

The Laccadive and Maidive islands, w r est of Hindostan and 
Ceylon, are unimportant, but very numerous. The Maldives are 
said to be more than three hundred in number. Ceylon, one 
of the largest and finest islands in the world, has lately devolved 
to the English, who have some valuable settlements on its coast 
at Trincomalee, Columbo, &c. Its capital, Candy, was taken by 
the English in 1815. 

The productions of India are rice, sugar, cotton, silk, indigo, 
saltpetre, and precious stones, particularly diamonds. 

The Hindoos are a mild and inoffensive race, and yet extremely 

3 H 


418 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


ingenious; the Mahometans, of which there is a considerable 
number, are less amiable, but more brave. 

Persia. —This ancient and extensive empire, which has been 
a monarchy for nearly 2000 years, is 1400 miles long, and about 
1000 broad; and is bounded on the east by India; on the south, 
by the Gulf of Persia; on the west, by Arabia and Asiatic 
Turkey ; and on the north, by the Caspian Sea and Tartary. It 
is divided into Eastern and Western Persia, and the provinces 
near the Arabian Sea. Western Persia, or Persia Proper, is a 
distinct kingdom, and contains the provinces of Azerbijan, Mazan- 
deran, Irak-ajemi, Khuzistan, Fars, Kerman, and Khorassan. The 
principal towns and cities are Teheran, the capital, Ispahan, and 
Shiraz. Eastern Persia includes Afghanistan, or the country of 
the Afghans, with the provinces of Segestan and Balk, all of 
which are included in the dominions of the king of Cabul, whose 
proper country is in Hindostan. Beloochistan, or the country 
of the Belooches, includes the southern provinces of Mekran, 
Kohistan, Sarawan, &c. Its capital is Kelat, situated in the 
latter, on the north-east. The intercourse of Western Persia 
with foreign nations is carried on from the Persian Gulf, an arm 
of the sea, in which are the islands of Ormus and Gombroon, 
once noted for their trade. From Persia are brought silks, 
carpets, leather, pearls, and gold and silver lace. It has numerous 
mines of gold, silver, iron, turquois stones, and salt; but the first 
two are not worked for want of wood. A great part of Persia, having 
suffered more than any country in the world from a succession of 
tyrants, has almost ceased to be a civilized country. It abounds 
hi remains of antiquity. 

Independent Tart ary. —This extensive region includes 
the finest part of the country on the banks of the Oxus, and is 
celebrated as forming the greater part of Scythia, and of the 
ancient Persian empire. It was afterwards distinguished as the 
basis of the wide empire of Timur. It consists of an immense 
plain, many parts of which are barren, but in others numerous 
horses and cattle are reared, and their conquering armies consist 
chiefly of cavalry. The Tartars, though rude, are extremely 
hospitable. The chief divisions of Independent Tartary are— 
1. The territory of the Oxus, or Great Bucharia, once the seat 
of the empire of Timur; Bochara, now the chief city, contains 
100,000 inhabitants, with a very extensive establishment for the 
cultivation of learning. Samarcand, though greatly declined from 
its ancient splendour, contains many fine buildings. 2. Ferghana, 


GEOGRAPHY. 


419 


on the Sihon, contains many fruitful plains, and the large cities 
of Koukan, Khojend, and Turkestan. 3. Balk, the ancient 
Bactria, on the southern side of the mountain range of Indian 
Caucasus. It is fertile, and Balk, the capital, is the seat of a 
great inland trade. 4. Khiva, to the east of the Caspian. 
5. Extensive plains, or steppes, in the north, are tenanted by 
the four hordes of the Kirgises. The chief rivers of Tartary are 
the Jihon, or Oxus, and the Sirr, or Sihon ; and the most consi¬ 
derable lake, or inland sea, is that of Aral. 

Arabia, by its position, formed a kind of central country in 
the ancient world, and at one time it was a grand emporium by 
which the most distant nations were connected. It forms a great 
peninsula, about 1600 miles long and 1400 broad, and consists 
chiefly of sandy deserts. The Arabians generally live under 
tents in the open air, and some of them are robbers, others are 
shepherds. The few who reside in towns apply to commerce. 
The climate is, in some parts, hot and dry, and subject to poison¬ 
ous winds. In other parts the soil is fertile, and the air salubrious. 
In the great deserts, travellers guide themselves by the stars and 
compass, as mariners do at sea In the seventh century, Mahomet 
spread his conquests from Arabia over great portions of Asia and 
Africa. Within the last fifty years great changes have been 
produced in the religion of Arabia, by Abdal Waheb, whose 
numerous followers are called Wahabees; but they have been 
subjugated by the pasha of Egypt. 

Arabia has been divided into three parts: Arabia the Stony, 
Arabia the Desert, and Arabia Felix, or the Happy. But these 
divisions are imperfect, and the following are the principal recog¬ 
nised in the country itself: 1. Hedjez. %. Yemen. 3. Ommon. 
4. Nedjed. Hedjez is a territory in general rude and rocky, though 
it contains some well inhabited valleys. The chief places are Mecca, 
the birth-place, of the prophet Mahomet, and Medina, the place at 
which he was buried.—Yemen, on the south-western coast, merits 
the appellation of the Happy Arabia; Sena is the capital, but 
Mocha and Aden are the chief seats of commerce.—Ommon 
contains a number of sea-ports; among others, the great maritime 
and commercial state of Muscat.—Nedjed forms the most interior 
part of Arabia, where the genuine Arab character most distinctly 
appears. Nedjed was the chief seat of the power of the Waha¬ 
bees, and suffered severely in their downfal. Deraie, its capital, 
was then laid in ruins. 

Arabian horses are much esteemed. Camels and dromedaries 
are the common beasts of harden. The coffee of Arabia is 


420 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


superior to that of all other countries, and its chief article of 
export. The only fruit of the desert is the date, which supplies 
the Arab with a considerable part of his scanty meal. 


. ^ HE Eastern Archipelago.— The immense cluster of 
islands, called the Oriental or Eastern Archipelago, is divided into, 
1. The islands of Sunda, or the Sumatran chain, which comprise 
Sumatra, Java, Bally, Lombock, Flores, and Timor, with several 
others of less magnitude. Java, the richest and most populous, 
contains about 6,000,000 people. 2. Borneo, and some small 
suirounding islands. Borneo is the largest island in the world, 
excepting Australia, which comprises New Holland, and New 
South Wales. S. The Manillas, or Philippine Islands, including 
Luzon, Mindanao, Palawa, Mindora, Pany, Negros, Zebu, Levte, 
Samar, and several hundred smaller islands.—4. The Celebesian 
Isles, viz. Celebes, Boeton, and the surrounding small islands. 
Boeton is governed by a Mahometan sultan.—5. Moluccas, 
including the Spice Islands : these are Gilolo, Ceram, Bouro, 
y, Amboyna, Banda, Tidore, Ternate, &c., which produce 
nutmegs, cloves, and other valuable spices. These islands lie 
under the equator, and are the hottest regions in the world; they 
are full of inhabitants, who are half civilized, but in a state of 
slavery. The Dutch are almost masters of this Archipelago. 


Under the head of Asia it has been customary with geographers 
to include that labyrinth of islands, situate in the Northern Ocean 
including Australasia and Polynesia, to which the French have 
recently given the name of Oceanica. There seems, however, a 
marked characteristic distinction between these portions of the 
globe, and the old continent or islands of Asia. It has, there¬ 
fore, been latterly considered a separate grand division’of the 
globe. 

Nature has given this part of the world a very prominent and 
characteristic physiognomy. No portion of the surface of the 
globe has more numerous inequalities, and in none, except America 
have the chains of mountains so striking a polarity, so marked a 
irection from north to south ; at the same time, these chains 
generally present, about the middle, a great bend from west to 
east Among these thousands of islands, some shoot up to a 
considerable elevation, generally presenting a conical form • 
many of them, according to Foster, are basaltic. The centres of 
the mountains often contain wide tunnels, and at other times round 
lakes, which may be taken for ancient craters. Although the 
presence of volcanic substances has not everywhere been ascertained 


GEOGRAPHY. 


421 


by satisfactory evidence, we know already in Oceanica a greater 
number of volcanoes than in any other part of the world. Sailors 
sometimes speak of them with admiration, at other times with 
terror. In one place, as in Shooten’s Islands, near New Guinea, 
the flames and the smoke rise calmly over a fruitful and smiling 
country; in another, as in the northern part of the Marianne 
Islands, dreadful torrents of black lava darken the shore. 

All the low islands seem to have for their base a reef of coral 
rocks, generally disposed in a circular form. The middle space is 
often occupied by a lagoon ; the sand is mixed with pieces of 
broken coral, and other marine substances; proving that such 
islands have been originally formed by these coral rocks, which 
are inhabited, and, according to some, created by polypi, and 
afterwards augmented and elevated by the slow accumulation of 
light bodies drifted to them by the sea. It is, however, very 
remarkable, that among the islands so constituted, some are almost 
level with the sea, while others have hundreds of feet of elevation, 
of which last Tongataboo is an example. On their summits are 
found coral rocks, produced in the same manner with those found 
at the waters edge. Now the madrepores, millepores, and tubi- 
pores, which raise these submarine habitations, (for the true coral 
polypus is never found there,) grow over the hardened spoils of 
their dead predecessors. They cannot live above the level of the 
sea,—a circumstance which shows that the sea, at a former period, 
washed these rocks, and gradually retired and left them exposed. 
The reefs render the navigation of this ocean exceedingly danger¬ 
ous. In some of its seas these rocks reach the surface, while in 
others they lie dangerously concealed, having over them only a 
few feet of water. Captain Cook was neither able to foresee, nor 
avoid such dangers. It happened at one time, by a singularly 
fortunate accident, that the point of a rock, which had pierced his 
vessel, was broke off 1 , and by sticking in the place, saved the vessel 
from destruction. 

The geographical description of this new and important part 
of the globe may at present be considered as very imperfect. 
The following are the usual divisions :— 

Australasia. —The islands comprehended within the space 
denominated Australasia, are as follows: 

1. Australia, which is under the dominion of Great Britain, 
and divided into two great parts, New Holland and New South 
Wales, by the meridian of 135 degrees east. Australia is about 
three-fourths of the magnitude of all Europe, but has not yet been 
fully explored ; a great portion is desert, but other parts, in 


422 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


different directions, are fertile and beautiful, and all under an 
auspicious climate. On the south-eastern side of Australia is the 
colony of Port Jackson, near Botany Bay, containing the flourish¬ 
ing town of Sidney, the capital. Besides this, there are the new 
settlements of Swan River, and South Australia. 

2. Van-Dieman’s Land, separated from New South Wales by 
Bass’s Strait or channel. The British population in this island is 
rapidly increasing. Several towns have been laid out, and its 
capital, Hobart, on the south-east, upon the river Derwent, is 
finely and most advantageously situated for all the purposes of 
commerce. 

3 . New Zealand, consisting of two islands east of Australia. 

4. Papua, or New' Guinea, and the Papuan Isles. 

5. New Britain, New Ireland, and the Solomon Isles. 

6. New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides. 

Polynesia. —-Of the cluster of islands in the great Pacific 
Ocean, called Polynesia, the following are the principal: 

L The Ladrone, or Marianne Islands, the chief of which are 
Guam and Tinian. 2 . The Carolinas, the largest of which are 
Hogole and Yap. 3 . The Sandwich Islands, discovered by 
Captain Cook, at the largest of which, Owhyhee, that great 
navigator lost his life. 4. The Marquesas, which are very 
numerous. 5. The Society Islands, about sixty or seventy in 
number: Otaheite is the largest. 6. The Friendly Islands, the 
Fidjee or Fejee, and the Hervey Islands. 

Most of these were discovered within the last century. The 
inhabitants generally live in great simplicity, approaching to a 
state of nature, in a fine climate, and in fertile countries. Many 
of them, by means of the different Missionary Societies, have re¬ 
ceived the knowledge of the gospel, and consequently have made 
some advances towards a state of civilization. 

Africa. 

Africa, called by the ancients Libya, though now reduced to a 
state of general barbarism, once contained kingdoms and states 
eminent for arts and commerce. Egypt and Ethiopia were much 
celebrated; and Carthage, the rival of Rome, standing near the 
place now occupied by the city of Tunis, extended her commerce 
over every part of the known world. Africa is bounded on the north 
by the Mediterranean Sea; on the east, by the Isthmus of Suez, the 
Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean ; on the south, by the Southern 
Ocean ; and on the west, by the Atlantic. Though denominated 


Ci EOGRAPHY. 


m 


a continent, it is in reality a vast peninsula, extending from north 
to south about 4900 miles, and from east to west about 4500. 
The most striking features of Africa are its immense deserts, 
inhabited only by wild beasts, and its impenetrable forests in other 
parts, which leave only small portions for the labours of agriculture. 
As for the climate, lying chiefly within the torrid zone, it is ex¬ 
cessively hot. The periodical rains, however, cool the air, cause 
some of the rivers to overflow their banks, and fertilize the adjacent 
plains. The principal rivers in Africa are the Nile, the Niger, 
the Zaire, the Gambia, the Congo, and the Senegal. The Niger, 
whose course and termination has so long been the subject of in¬ 
vestigation, and to which many valuable lives have been sacrificed, 
has been ascertained at length, by the indefatigable Lander, to fall, 
by numerous estuaries, into the Gulf of Benin. The chief moun¬ 
tains of Africa are the Atlas mountains, which reach from Morocco 
to Egypt; the mountains of the Moon ; Sierra Leone, or Lion’s 
Mountains; and the Peak of Teneriffe. The chief productions of 
Africa are gold-dust, ivory, gums, drugs, and slaves ; for though 
the slave-trade, as respects England, is now abolished, that abomi¬ 
nable traffic is still continued throughout the greater part of the 
interior of Africa. 

No general character can apply to a whole continent like Africa, 
but where barbarism so universally prevails, all the vices belonging 
to ignorance may be expected to abound. The population consists 
chiefly of Moors and Arabs, who aie Mahometans, and Negroes 
and CafFres, who are pagans. There are but few Christians on 
this extensive continent, which, though it has recently been ex¬ 
plored in various parts, is still but imperfectly known to Europeans. 

War is carried on throughout the interior of Africa with the 
ferocity which characterises the proceedings of the most barbarous 
nations, but the peculiarity of African warfare is, that its ultimate 
object is slavery. The commerce and internal policy of almost 
every country in Africa also centre in this inhuman traffic. The 
Portuguese were the first Europeans who embarked in it. In 
imitation of those piracies, which existed in the uncivilized ages of 
the world about the close of the sixteenth century, they com¬ 
menced this practice by making descents on Africa, and com¬ 
mitting depredations on the coast. The practice, thus inconsiderable 
at its commencement, afterwards became general; and our ances¬ 
tors, together with the Spaniards, French, and most of the 
maritime powers of Europe, soon followed the piratical example. 
The unfortunate Africans fled from the coast, and sought, in the 
interior part of the country, a retreat from the persecution of their 
invaders: but the Europeans still pursued them ; they entered 


424 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


tlieii rivers, sailed up into the heart of the country, and carried 
them into slavery. The next step was that of settling in the 
country; of securing themselves by fortified posts ; of chanmno- 
their plan of proceeding by force into that of pretended liberabty t 
and of opening, by every species of bribery, a communication with 
the natives. The scheme succeeded ; an intercourse took place 
between the Europeans and A fncans, and at length a treaty of peace 
and commerce was concluded, which stipulated to supply the 
Europeans with captives and convicts; but these were not suf¬ 
ficient for their demand. In order to augment the number, thev 
delivered into slavery, not only -hose who were taken in a state of 
pu ilic enmity and injustice, bul those who were suspected. To the 
influence of this abominable traffic must beattributed that total igno¬ 
rance of the interior of Africa, which existed till within the last few 

^ e f 1 rs - How / ar . tlie recent attempts to abolish slavery in our colonies 
will afreet this inhuman system, remains vet to be decided. 

rica may be considered in the following order: Eo-ypt • 
Abyssmm; Central Africa; the Mahometan states in the north 
ca ed Barbary; the nations on the western coast; the colonv of 
the Cape of Good Hope in the south; and the eastern kingdoms 

Egypt, called by the Arabs Mezr , by the Copts, Khemi 

aT \ ^xri {S ’ consists of a narrow vale on both 

sides of the Nile bounded by parallel ridges of mountains or 

hills. It is divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower, which last 
comprehends the Delta formed by the lower branches of the 
Nile and famed for its fertility. It was once the seat, if it were 
not the parent, of the sciences. Its temples, pyramids, and 
tombs the monuments of its ancient grandeur, are of stupendous 
magnitude, surpassing those of any other country. Many of 

“V are e £ tlrel y cov 1 ered with sculptures, paintings, and 
ogyplncs.. Egypt sunk into great degradation beneath the 
1 urkish dominion ; but it is reviving under Mohammed Ali its 
present ruler. He has shaken off the yoke of the Porte and has 
even conquered Nubia, besides great portions of the’Turkish 

empire° nS m ASia ’ S ° that ^ is n ° W at tlle llead of a considerable 

Grand Cairo the capital of Egypt, is a large and splendid city. 
The ports are Alexandria, Rosetta, and Damietta. 7 

Nubia is a long narrow range of territory, extending upwards 
along the Nile. To the south-east are Kordofau and Darffir 
mde countries, inhabited by a barbarous people. ’ 1 * 



GEOGRAPHY. 


425 


Abyssinia is nn extensive country to the south-east of Nubia. 
It is politically divided into three distinct and independent states, 
1. Tigre, the most powerful, occupying nearly four degrees of 
longitude on the Arabian Gulf, and extending inland to the river 
Tacazze; capital, Antalo. 2. Amliana, comprising the country 
west of the Tacazze ; the capital is Antalo. 3. Shoa and Efat, 
situated to the southward of the two former, and separated from 
them by a nation called Galla, embracing some of the finest 
districts in Abyssinia, and supposed to contain a greater portion 
of Ethiopian literature than any other part; the capital is Ankober. 
The population of Abyssinia is about 7,600,000. The country 
is very mountainous; and many of them have a singular appear¬ 
ance, resembling the ruins of ancient walls, towers, and cities ; and 
in some places they are so steep and abrupt, as to be ascended only 
by ropes and ladders. The climate, in general, is temperate and 
healthy, the elevation of the country moderating the heat of its 
southern latitude. It has great variety of soil, and its products 
are diversified; among them may be named the papyrus, the 
plant from which paper was first made by the Egyptians, after the 
disuse of hieroglyphics; and the balessan, or balm of Gilead. No 
country in the world, it is said, possesses a greater variety of 
animals, both wild and tame. The number of birds in this 
country is also immense. The Abyssinians are generally of a 
dark olive complexion, tall, graceful, and well featured. Some of 
the tribes are fairer than others, approaching even to white; 
others are of a copper colour; and some very black. The man¬ 
ners of the Abyssinians are represented by Mr. Bruce as highly 
barbarous. Their continual warfare inures them to blood from 
their infancy, so that even children would not have the least 
scruple at killing one another, if they were able. 

Central Africa. —This term is now employed to designate 
an extensive and fruitful region in the interior of Africa, formerly 
almost entirely unknown, but which has within the last few years 
been explored by many enterprising travellers, most of whom have 
sacrificed their lives in their efforts to correct the geography of 
this extensive region. It is found to consist of immense tracts, 
separated from the countries on the coast by vast forests and 
deserts, but comprising the most improved and comparatively 
civilized nations of that great continent. The continued range of 
the mountains of the Moon, under various names and aspects, 
crosses it from west to east, and gives rise to the Niger, with its 
tributaries, and the other great rivers, which unite in forming the 
lake Tchad. The inhabitants consist partly of Negro nations, 

3 i 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


who nre more industrious and intelligent than in other parts of 
Africa; partly o! Moors and Fellatas, whose ancestors migrated 
from Egypt and Barbary. 

This region is divided among many nations, which cannot he 
here fully described; but the following are the principal:—Bornou 
is an extensive plain, immediately west of the lake Tchad, and 
watered by the river Yeou. Next to Bornou is Loggun, on the 
river Shary, which falls into the Tchad; and Mandara, a fine 
plain at the foot of a vast range of mountains. The inhabitants 
are Mahometan Negroes. 

Honssa is a fine and extensive region to the west of Bornou. 
The Fellatas, who inhabit it, are an industrious and intelligent, as 
■well as warlike race. The sultan of Soccatoo holds at present 
supreme sway over the states composing Houssa, which were con¬ 
quered by his predecessor. They are chiefly Kashna, Kano, 
Zegzeg, Goober, and Zamfra. 

.The countries on the lower Niger, recently explored by Lander, 
being well watered, and in many places inundated by that great 
river, are extremely fruitful; but in approaching the sea, they 
become marshy and unhealthy. The Niger rolls here a magnificent 
stream several miles broad, resembling an inland s^a; it receives 
Tshadda, almost as large as itself, flowing from countries 
unknown. The people are brave ; but the king has incurred just 
reproach by the attack which terminated in the death of Park, 
and by the extortions practised towards Lander. Boussa, Kiama, 
\Vawa, and Niki, are also considerable states. Yarriba, having 
Eyeo for its capital, is a very large and populous kingdom* 
Nyffe, on the opposite or eastern side of the Niger, is distinguished 
for manufacturing industry, its cloths and mats being superior to 
any other made in Africa. The countries on the Upper Niger 
are also rich and industrious. Timbuctoo has been long celebrated 
as the seat of the caravan trade with Morocco for slaves and gold. 
Bambarra is a fine plain watered by the Niger; and Sego, its 
capital, is large and flourishing. Jinne, Sansanding, and Walet, 
are also great seats of inland trade. 

Barbary extends along the Mediterranean, from the Atlantic to 
Egypt, and includes the Mahometan states of Tripoli, Tunis, 
Algiers, and the empire of Morocco; to which some geographers 
also add the kingdom of Barca. It forms a beautiful and 
fertile region, once flourishing, but long sunk under tyranny and 
oppression. The population of Barbary is chiefly composed of 
tour classes: the Brebers, or ancient inhabitants, the Moors the 
Jews, and the Arabs. The most atrocious piracies were carried 
on from the sea-ports; but these have been suppressed by 


GEOGRAPHY. 


427 


Britain; and the French have now taken possession of Algiers, 

the chief seat of these outrages, and are endeavouring to colonize 
the territory. 

Western Africa. —Under this name is comprised that wide 
range of coast, excluding the great desert, from the Senegal river 
to the river of Benguela, extending 4000 miles in length, with an 
average breadth of 300 miles. It consists of innumerable tribes of 
people, and various kingdoms, through which flow the rivers 
Senegal and Gambia, on which are many European forts and 
settlements. Sierra Leone, which includes Freetown, is an 
English settlement in Guinea, formed for the civilization of the 
interior of Africa. Guinea is divided into the Grain, the Ivory, 
and the Gold'coasts, which, notwithstanding the efforts made by 
the friends of humanity, still continues to supply Europeans with 
slaves. It contains the extensive kingdoms of Ashantee and 
Dahomey. From this coast, gold and ivory are the chief exports. 
1 ( arther south, Benin, Loango, Congo, Angola, and Benguela, 
present the most interesting objects, and are all peopled with half- 
civilized Negroes. There are several Portuguese settlements. 

Southern Africa contains not only the colony of the Cape 
of Good Hope, but also those immense tracts of country, in the 
interior to the north, as far as they have been explored. The 
Cape of Good Hope was first founded by the Dutch, but now 
ceded to England. Cape Town contains SO,000 inhabitants. 
To the north are the pastoral tribes of the Boshuanas. On the 
eastern coast are the Caffres; north from them are the Zoolas, a 
most ferocious tribe, who have lately committed dreadful ravages in 
this part of Africa; on the eastern coast, the Portuguese have 
Mosambique, Sofala, and Quillimane, at the mouth of the great 
river Zambese. Farther north is Zanguebar, which has been 
dreadfully ravaged by the Galla. Near the coast are the flat 
fertile islands of Zanziber, Pemba, and Monfia. Farther north 
is the arid and desolate coast of Ajan; but Berbera, west from 
Cape Guardafui, is noted for the production of incense • and 
odoriferous plants. 

To the east of Africa lies the island of Madagascar, one of the 
largest in the world. Off the west is the isle of St. Helena, an 
English colony, and a desirable port; become famous as having been 
the residence of the Emperor Napoleon. Off the eastern coast of 
Madagascar is the French island Bourbon; and to the eastward 
of the latter is Mauritius, or the Isle of France, now belonging 
to Great Britain. The Cape do Verde Islands are ten in number, 


42(8 


i r OUNG man’s COMPANION. 

subject to the Portuguese; the two largest are St. Jago and 
ht. Antonio. More northerly are the Canary or Fortunate Islands; 
among these is the famous Peak of Teneriffe, two miles and a 
halt m perpendicular height. The island of Madeira, still farther 
north, is famous for its wine and healthful climate. 


AMERICA. 


America is a great continent, often called the New World 
and comprehends nearly all the land in the western hemisphere’ 
It was first discovered, in 1493, by Christopher Columbus, a 
Cenoese m the service of Spain; but received its name from 
Americus Vesputius, a Florentine, who made a voyage to this 
continent four years after. It is divided into North and South 
1 merica, which are connected by the Isthmus of Darien • and 
extends about 9000 miles in length, and 3700 at the greatest 

breadth, passing through every change of climate, and possessing 
every variety of soil. 1 ° 


NORTH AMERICA. 

North America includes—1. Greenland, which belong to 
Denmark. 2. British America, comprising New Britain, which 
includes a vast extent of country west of Hudson’s Bav and 
Labrador, or country of the Esquimaux; on the east, Upper 
Canada, Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia 3 The 
Russian possessions in the north-west. 4. United States. And 
5. Mexico and Guatemala. By a wise provision, this very exten¬ 
sive tract of land is furnished with a number of inland leas and 

4® 8 ’ " ‘l Ch re iw - le dlfferent P art s it accessible to each 
other, and greatly facilitate commerce. The inland seas of North 

merica are, the gulfs of Mexico, California, and St. Lawrence 
with Hudson s Bay and Straits, Baffin’s Bay, and Davis’s Straits’ 
The lakes Superior, Ontario, Erie, Michigan, Winipeg, and the 
Slave Lake, are the argest in the world, and may, with pro- 
pnety be denominated inland seas. The rivers are also munifi¬ 
cent features in North America. Of these the principal are the 

D kware ffie sTZ 1 ’ ^t° n ’ the Ch 4>eake, the 

JJelaware, the St. Lawrence, and the Columbia. The gulf of St 

.awrence is formed on the east, by the island of Newfoundland’ 
length! ^IbStdfotlmnodfithSf miles | n 

md d 5 ’ “aT! Which , th v, Missouri and ColumbiateketheitVse 6 

and the Alleghany, which contain the source of the Ohio. ’ 


GEOGRAPHY. 


429 


The United States. —This extensive republic, exclusive of 
Louisiana, an immense tract, purchased from the French, and 
now a separate state, is 1650 miles in length, 1250 in breadth. 
The United States are famed for their industry and spirit of com¬ 
merce, as well as for the excellency of their political constitution. 
The greater part of the inhabitants sprung from English settlers, 
though there are many descendants of Germans, Dutch, and Swiss. 
Including black slaves, they amount to nearly 13,000,000. These 
states are in a very flourishing and improving condition, and 
promise to become, on the abolition of that slavery which they 
now tolerate, the most powerful and happy community in the 
world. They export vast quantities of timber, pitch, potash, 
skins, corn, tobacco, rice, and cotton, and their ships are to be 
found in every part of the world. 

The Republic of the United States is governed by a presi¬ 
dent, chosen every four years, and is divided into the Northern, 
Middle, and Southern States—twenty-eight in number. 

The Northern States are, Maine, capital Portland; Vermont, 
Montpellier, New Hampshire, Concord; Massachusetts, Boston; 
Connecticut, Hartford and Newhaven ; Rhode Island, Newport 
and Providence; and Columbia, Alexandria. 

The Middle States are, New York, chief city New York ; 
New Jersey, Trenton*; Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Delaware, 
Dover; Ohio, Cincinnati; Michigan, Detroit; Indiania, Indiano- 
polis ; Illinois, Vandala ; and Missouri, St. Louis. 

The Southern States are, Maryland, Baltimore; Virginia, 
Richmond; Kentucky, Louisville ; North Carolina, Charleston ; 
South Carolina, Columbia; Georgia, Savannah; Tennessee, 
Nashville; Alabama, Mobile; Mississippi, Natchez; Arkansas, 
Little Rock; Louisiana, New Orleans; and Floridas, St. 
Augustine. 

Floridas has recently been ceded by the Spanish government 
being 400 miles in length, and with about 10,000 inhabitants. 
Its chief towns are St. Augustine, the capital, and Pensacola. 

The chief cities and towns in the Union are Washington, the 
capital, Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Baltimore, Charleston, 
and New Orleans. The rivers of the United States are large and 
numerous. The Mississippi, Missouri, Chesapeake, Delaware, 
Hudson, and Ohio, are the most considerable. 

Mexico, formerly subject to Spain, but now forming a new 
independent republic, was celebrated for its mines of silver. It is 
extremely fertile, and the valleys, especially, produce almost all 
kinds of fruits. Mexico, the capital, is a spacious and magnificent 


430 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


city, seated on several islands in a salt water lake, called Tescuco, 
to which there is no entrance but by three causeways, two miles 
in length each. 

Guatemala is a small state to the north of the Isthmus of Darien, 
which has separated from Mexico, and assumed the title of 
Central America. 

British America. —In North America the British dominions 
comprise an assemblage of vast, ill defined, and straggling territories, 
the remnant of that mighty empire,'of which the great insurrection 
deprived Britain. Even in their present dismembered state, 
however, their extent and capacities might, and probably will, 
enable them one day to surpass the greatest of the now existing 
European monarchies. They include Labrador, Lower and Upper 
Canada, with half of the great lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and 
Superior; also Nova Scotia, New Brunswick; the isle of Cape 
Breton, Newfoundland, the Bermudas, and other islands. The 
chief cities are Quebec, Montreal, Toronto, formerly York, 
Halifax, Shelburne, Fredericton, and St.John's. The climate is 
severe, exceeding what is felt under the same latitude in the old 
continent. The population of the British American provinces, 
according to the latest enumerations, made mostly between 1827 
and 1832, was as follows: Lower Canada, 1831, -511,917; 
Upper Canada, 1832, 257,814 ; New Brunswick, 72,932; Nova 
Scotia and Cape Breton, 142,548; Prince Edward Island, 23,473 ; 
Newfoundland, 60,088: total, 1,068,772. This northern part 
of North America is mountainous and barren, abounding with 
lakes, rivers, and bays, that afford plenty of fish. The timber, 
fur-trade, and fisheries, constitute their chief value to Great 
Britain. 

Native Tribes .—Numerous small tribes or hordes, of from 
500 to 5000 each, occupy the vast extent of country from the 
United States to the Pacific Ocean ; also Greenland, Labrador, 
the regions around Hudson's Bay, and along the western coast.—all 
in a barbarous condition, and depending on the uncertain produce 
of the chase. By the encroachments of the inhabitants of the 
United States, and the policy of the government, these tribes of 
aborigines are, however, gradually becoming extinct. In the 
most northern parts of this immense continent, many new dis¬ 
coveries have been made within the last few years: these are 
chiefly the result of several expeditions sent out by the British 
government for that purpose, at various periods, since the year 
1818 to the present time, under Captains Ross, Parry, Franklin, 


geography. 


431 


and others. The chief object of these expeditions was, to ascertain 
the existence of a north-west passage from Baffin’s or Hudson’s 
Bay to the Pacific Ocean, and to explore more fully the region of 
the north pole. The last of these voyages was performed between 
the years 1829 and 1833, under the direction of captain, now Sir 
John Ross, and his nephew, Commander Ross. Although the 
expedition was fitted out under the patronage of a private gentle¬ 
man, Sir Felix Booth, the officers and men were subsequently 
remunerated by the British government. From the published 
account of this expedition, as well as those of former voyages, it 
appears that there is, without doubt, a passage into the ocean, 
clear of all obstructions except those of climate ; but that these 
at present seem to render it impracticable for regular mercantile 
enterprise. 

The northern coast of America thus recently explored, border¬ 
ing on the vast expanse of the Arctic Ocean, is inhabited by the 
Esquimaux, a race quite different from the Indians, and com¬ 
paratively laborious and peaceful. They subsist by fishing, and 
chasing the wild and amphibious animals which abound on this 
coast. In the ocean to the north of America, Captain Parry 
dicovered a range of large islands, of which the principal have 
been called Melville, Bathurst, and Cockburn. They are un¬ 
inhabited, the climate being extremely severe, and in winter only 
a few of the most hardy animal tribes are able to subsist. 

The West Indies. —This term is usually applied to an 
archipelago of large and fine islands situated in the wide interval 
between North and South America. The most valuable of them 
are in the possession of Great Britain, and together with the 
provinces of British Guiana and Honduras on the continent, are 
frequently included under the general term of West Indies. 
The most extensive of these islands are Cuba, chief town Ha- 
vanna, and Port Rico, belonging to Spain; Havti, or St. Domingo, 
next to Cuba both in magnitude and position, now an independent 
republic of blacks and people of colour, and Jamaica, belonging 
to England, the chief towns of which are Kingston and Port 
Royal. North of Hayti and Cuba are the Bahamas, belonging 
to England, the principal of which is Providence Island. The 
Caribbees extend from Trinidad in the south to the Virgin 
Islands in the north ; and are also called the Windward Islands, 
or Antillas. Of these, since the treaty of Paris, 1814, the 
English islands are Barbadoes, Tobago, Trinidad, Grenada, the 
Granadines, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Dominica, Montserrat, An¬ 
tigua, Berbuda, St. Christopher's and Nevis, Anguilla, Virgin- 


432 


YOUNG man’s companion. 


gorda, and Tortola, with several smaller isles. The French 
islands are, Martinico, Guadaloupe, Mariegalante, Thomas, and 
St. John’s; the Dutch, St. Eustatius, Saba, and part of St. Martin’s. 
To the latter, also, belongs the leeward island Curacoa, off the 
coast of Venezuela. The island of St. Bartholomew belongs to 
Sweden. 

Rich products, high cultivation, and the very singular form of 
society existing in the West Indies, have rendered them, in 
modern times, peculiarly interesting. The splendour of the 
vegetation in the islands of the West Indies is the theme of 
every traveller who visits them. Few plants are more extensively 
valuable than the mahogany, (swietenia mahagoni ), which is an 
important article of export. With regard to the banana, or 
plantain, it is to be doubted whether there is another plant in 
the world which, on a small space of ground, produces such a 
mass of nourishing substance ; and the facility with which the 
banana is raised makes it even preferable to the bread tree. So 
fine are the climate and soil of these islands, that tropical plants, 
from all parts of the world, are readily cultivated. 

The population of the different portions of the West Indies 
has been ascertained with varying degrees of accuracy: the fol¬ 
lowing may be regarded as a near approximation of the whole :— 
Spanish islands, 1,000,000; British, inclusive of Demerara. 
788,000; Hayti, 800,000; French islands (inclusive of Cay¬ 
enne), 222,000 ; other European islands (including Dutch 
Guiana), 150,000 ; of these it is probable that not above 500,000 
are Europeans. The social state of these islands is peculiar and 
painful. The population formerly consisted chiefly of three 
portions, between which scarcely any sympathy existed : 1. The 
whites. 2. The slaves. 3. A mixed* population of coloured 
people. The whites, who form but a small part of the population, 
are the masters, in whom all the power and property centre. 

I hey consist partly of proprietors, superintending the cultivation 
of their own lands, partly of agents and overseers employed by 
owners residing in Britain. The slaves, who formed the most 
numerous part, and who were continually under the lash of a 
task-master, are now in most of the islands set free. By the 
late act for their emancipation, it is hoped that the sufferings 
which they have endured will in due time be removed. The cha¬ 
racter and deportment of the freed negroes have hitherto been on 
the whole exemplary. 

An uncommon measure of wealth and prosperity was for a 
long time enjoyed by these islands. They flourished especial]v 
during the last century, when they supplied almost exclusively 


GEOGRAPHY. 


4 on 
OO 

sugar, coffee, and other articles, the use of which had become 
general over the civilized world. After the French revolution, 
and that of the negroes in St. Domingo, the islands belonging to 
Britain became almost the sole quarter whence Europe was fur¬ 
nished with West India produce. Plantations, according to 
Mr. Hibbert, vary from 500 to 1000 acres, and from 100 to 
500 negroes. The exportation of rum in 1832 amounted to 
4,753,783 gallons, the value of which, at 2s. 9d. a gallon, would 
be 753,644/. Of this amount, 3,513,000 gallons, retained in 
Britain for home consumption, paid a duty of 1,570,000/. 
Coffee ranks next to sugar in importance, and though introduced 
from a remote quarter of the world, has been cultivated with 
such success that the coffee of Berbice and Jamaica ranks next 
to that of Mocha. The exportation to Britain in 1832, amounted 
to 24,600,0001bs. the value of which, at 6d. per lb., may be 
685,700/. A few other articles are produced in these islands. 
Cotton was formerly considered one of their staples. In 1786, 
the produce was 5,800,000lbs. but in 1831 and 1832, it aver¬ 
aged only l,950,0001bs. Cacao, the principal material of chocolate, 
has also much declined, chiefly, perhaps, on account of that 
beverage being almost entirely disused in Britain. The average 
of export in 1831 and 1832 was l,050,0001bs. These islands 
supply the British empire with nearly all the sugar, rum, and 
coffee consumed in it. The West Indies also carry on an exten¬ 
sive intercourse with the United States, and the British colonies in 
North America, to which they send their staple productions, and 
receive in return grain, provisions, fish, and timber. The trade 
with the British colonies employed in 1831, 486 ships, of 75,896 
tons, with 5074 men outwards. That from the United States, in 
the same year, employed, according to Mr. Bliss, 58,825 tons, 
of which more than two-thirds were American. The imports 
into our West India colonies from Great Britain consist of coarse 
cottons, linens, checks, hats, and other articles of negro clothing, 
hardware and earthenware; staves, hoops, coal, lime, paint, lead ; 
Irish provisions, herrings, and other salt fish, &c., with furniture, 
wine, beer, and medicine. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

The greater part of this immense tract of territory was formerly 
under the dominion of Spain and Portugal ; but within the last 
twenty years the inhabitants have revolted from the parent countries, 
and formed themselves into independent governments, some of 
them of immense extent and internal resources. 


4 34 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

South America is best known for its gold and silver mines, 
which have been wonderfully productive to Spain. The choicest 
gums and drugs are likewise found in vario< s parts of this immense 
continent. The rivers Amazon and La Plata are celebrated as 
the largest in the world. Both of them use among the Andes, 
and their course is some thousand miles in length. The Oronoco 
is also of considerable magnitude. The mountains of South 
America are some of the loftiest on the globe, and have many 
volcanos among them. The Andes run from north to south, and 
extend 4600 miles. The highest is nearly four miles high, and 
they are covered with perpetual snow. 

The parts of South America which formerly belonged to the 
Spaniards are the finest and richest of the whole continent. These 
now form the republics of Columbia, Peru, Chili, and La Plata. 

Columbia is the most important of the new republics, and that 
which earliest shook off the Spanish yoke. It contains a number 
of considerable cities, among which are Caraccas, Cumana, and 
Carthagena, on the northern coast; Panama and Porto Bello on 
the opposite sides of the Isthmus of Darien ; Santa Fe de Bogota, 
Quito, and Popayan, in the interior; and Guayaquil, on the 
South Sea. The population is about 2,800,000. The principal 
articles of export are cacao, indigo, tobacco, coffee, hides, and 
cattle. The imports are manufactured goods. 

In consequence of the recent changes, Columbia is now subdi¬ 
vided into three separate portions; and though the boundaries of 
this subdivision are too ill defined, and its permanency too un¬ 
certain, to admit of its superseding the general appellation of 
Columbia, yet the subdivisions require to be noticed. This state is 
now divided into the three separate republics of New Granada, 
comprising the ancient viceroyalty of that name ; the Equator, 
composed of Quito and the adjoining territories; Venezuela, 
comprehending the great plain east of the Andes, and bordering 
on the sea. 

Peru, Upper and Lower. —This was formerly one of the five 
viceroyalties while under the Spanish government, and is celebrated 
as the seat of the mild and civilized empire of the Incas. It now 
forms two republics, Peru, and Bolivia, called also Upper Peru. 
The country is distinguished by mines of silver and mercury, which 
were the richest in the world, but have greatly declined in value. 
Peru may contain about 2,500,000 people. Lima, its capital, is 
the most splendid city in South America. Cusco is the ancient 
capital of the Incas. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


435 


Chili, to the south of Peru, consists of a long, narrow, but 
very fertile plain, between the Andes and the ocean. It is 
about 1400 miles long, and from 100 miles to 200 miles broad. 
The population is stated to be 1,200,000. It contains mines of 
gold and copper. Santiago is the capital; but the chief trade is 
from the ports of Valparaiso, Conception, and Valdivia. 

La Plata consists of an immense plain, watered by the river 
of that name, and reaching nearly across the continent, from 
the Atlantic to the Andes. Buenos Ayres, the capital, is at the 
mouth of the La Plata, and the chief interior towns are Cordova 
and Mendoza. Monte Video, with its territory south of the 
La Plata, forms now a separate republic, called the United Pro¬ 
vinces of La Plata. Buenos Ayres, the capital, sometimes gives 
name to the new republic. 

Brazil is a country of vast extent, and one of the richest 
regions of the earth. It was formerly subject to Portugal, but is 
now an independent state, or empire, governed by princes of the 
house of Braganza. The dimensions of this immense range of terri¬ 
tory are about 2,300 miles of extreme length, and 2,000 of breadth. 
The area of the whole has been estimated by Humboldt, after 
careful measurement of the best maps, at 257,000 square marine 
leagues, or 3,304,000 square miles. It is thus twenty-five times the 
extent of the British islands, nearly three times that of Mexico or 
Columbia, and greater by a fourth than the entire domain of the 
United States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is rather 
more than half of all South America. 

It contains mines of gold, silver, and diamonds, and is well situ¬ 
ated for commerce with all parts of the world. The chief cities 
are Rio de Janeiro, the capital, Bahia, or San Salvador, and Per- 
mambuco; both the latter are flourishing sea-ports. The popu¬ 
lation of Brazil is nearly 5,000,000. 

The parts of South America still in possession of savage native 
tribes, are Amazonia, or the country on the river of the Amazons ; 
and Patagonia, a desolate country near the southern extremity of 
America, formerly said to be inhabited by a gigantic race; and 
Guiana, which is divided among different European nations. The 
English have Demerara and Berbice; the Dutch, Surinam ; and 
the French, Cayenne, famous for its pepper. The islands con¬ 
tiguous to South America are, the Falkland islands, Terra del 
Fuego, Juan Fernandez, the Galapagos, and the Pearl islands, 
near Panama. 


436 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


CHAPTER X. 

ASTRONOMY. 


Astronomy is the science which explains the forms, motions, 
distances, and other phenomena of the heavenly bodies. These 
are the sun, the planets with their moons, the comets, and the fixed 
stars. The visible heavens afford the most sublime subject of 
study which can be derived from science, The magnitude and 
splendour of the objects, the inconceivable rapidity with which 
they move, and the enormous distances between them, impress the 
mind with some notion of the energy that maintains them in their 
motions with a durability to which we can see no limit. Equally 
conspicuous is the goodness of the great First Cause, in having 
endowed man with faculties by which he can not only appreciate 
the magnificence of his works, but trace, with precision, the 
operation of his laws, use the globe he inhabits as a base where¬ 
with to measure the magnitude and distance of the sun and 
planets, and make the diameter of the earth’s orbit the first step 
of a scale by which he may ascend to the starry firmament. 

All the knowledge man possesses of external objects, is founded 
on experience, which furnishes facts; the comparison of these 
facts establishes relations, from which induction (the belief that 
like causes will produce like effects,) leads to general laws, and by 
a knowledge and application of these general laws, all the great 
truths in astronomy are ascertained and •established. The pecu¬ 
liar department of this science, by which the nature and effects of 
these general laws have been investigated, and the connexion 
traced between this and other branches of knowledge, have been 
properly termed physical astronomy. But our limits will only 
permit us as we pass along, cursorily to allude to this connexion ; 
we must in the present chapter confine ourselves chiefly to a sum¬ 
mary of the principal facts which have been already established 
as the result of physical astronomy. 

THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 

Although the ancients made very considerable advances in some 
branches of astronomical science, yet, if we except the discoveries 
































. 





































































ASTRO N O M T 


MIL KY IVA .Y. 



SOLAR S 


STEM 






















ASTRONOMY. 


4-37 


of some philosophers of the Pythagorean school, their ideas of the 
solar system were in general very imperfect and erroneous. 

Aided by the great improvements in the telescope, which 
discover to us many new planets since the time of Copernicus, the 
solar system now presents to us eleven primary planets, eighteen 
secondary planets, or moons, and a number of comets. The 
planetary bodies which revolve round the sun, and not round any 
other body, are called primary planets; while those which revolve 
round the primary planets, as our moon, and the moons of Jupiter 
and Saturn, are termed secondary planets. 

The names of the primary planets are Mercury, Venus, the 
Earth, Mars, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta, Jupiter, Saturn, and 
Herschel, or the Georgium Sidus. Of these the four newly dis¬ 
covered planets, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, being much 
smaller than the rest, are by some astronomers separated from 
them under the name of asteroides , or star-like bodies. 

The eighteen secondary planets are dependent upon some of 
the primaries, and move round them as they revolve about the 
sun. Of these secondaries, or satellites, the Earth has one, 
which we call the moon ; Jupiter has four; Saturn seven, besides 
a luminous ring which encircles his orb ; Herschel has six: but 
none of these, except our moon, can be seen without the help of 
a telescope. 

The Sun is in the centre ; nearest to the sun revolves Mercury, 
then Venus, the Earth, Mars, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, 
Saturn, and Herschel. See Plate Astronomy , fig. 2. 

The paths in which the planets move are called their orbits. The 
orbits of the planets, though circular in the figure, are in nature 
elliptical. The planets perform their revolutions in different 
periods of time: the time of performing their revolution is called 
their year; they turn on their axes, and the time employed for 
this purpose is called their day. The planets are opaque bodies, 
and shine only by reflecting the light which they receive from the 
sun. 

Venus and Mercury, being nearer the sun than the earth, are 
called inferior planets ; and all the others, which are without the 
earth's orbit, are called superior planets. When a planet is 
situate so as to be between the sun and the earth, or so that the 
sun is between the earth and the planet, then the planet is said to 
be in conjunction with the sun ; but when the earth is between 
the sun and any planet, then that planet is said to be in opposition. 
The inferior planets have two conjunctions with the sun, but the 
superior have only one, because they can never come between the 
earth and sun. When a planet comes directly between the 


438 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


earth and sun, it appears to pass over the sun's surface, and 
this is called the transit of the planet. The planets move faster 
when they are nearest the sun, and slower in the remotest parts of 
their orbits. 

The Sun (fig. 1) the source of light and heat to the earth and the 
planets which revolve round him, is a vast sphere, whose diameter 
is 888,000 miles, or more than a thousand times larger than that 
of the earth; its magnitude therefore is a million times as great. 

Black spots, of an irregular form, are observed at the surface of 
the sun, which when examined from day to day, are found to tra¬ 
verse the whole surface from east to west in fourteen days. Their 
number, position, and magnitude, are extremely variable. They 
are often very numerous, and of considerable extent. Some have 
been observed whose diameters exceed four or five times that of 
the earth. Sometimes, however, but rarely, the sun has appeared 
free from spots for years together. When a spot is first discovered 
on the eastern limb of the sun it appears like a fine line ; its 
breadth augments as it approaches the middle of the disk; it di¬ 
minishes as it goes over to the western limb, where it at last disap¬ 
pears. 

The nature of the solar body is to us unknown, and will most 
probably ever remain so; the speculations respecting it are various. 
The opinion of Laplace is, that the sun is a mass of fire ; but this 
opinion is now generally exploded : by others it is supposed that 
the sun is a solid opaque body, surrounded by an enormous 
atmosphere, filled with luminous clouds, occasionally opening and 
exhibiting the dark mass within, and that the spots are portions of 
the solid sphere of the sun. 

Mercury (fig. 2) is the planet nearest to the sun, and on that 
account is very seldom visible. It is not often seen by the naked 
eye, except in the southern parts of the world. Mercury being 
within the earth's orbit, its enlightened side is always turned 
towards the sun, moving round that luminary at the amazing rate 
of 95,000 miles an hour. 

Venus (fig. 3) is by far the most brilliant of all the planets : 
sometimes, indeed, it is visible in full day by the naked eve. 
When this planet is westward of the sun, and therefore rises 
before him, it is, from the splendour of its appearance, called the 
morning star; when it is eastward of the sun, and therefore sets 
after him, it is an evening star. 

The Earth, (fig. 4) like the rest of the planets, has a diurnal 
motion about its axis, and an annual one about the sun. The diurnal 
motion of the earth is the cause of day and night. When one 
half of the earth is turned towards the sun, it receives its rays, and 


ASTRONOMY. 


439 


;s illuminated, causing day ; and when this half is turned from the 
sun, we are in darkness, and then we have night. 

Twilight is owing to the refraction of the rays of light by our 
atmosphere, through which they pass, and which, by bending them, 
occasion some to arrive at a part of the earth that could not re¬ 
ceive any direct rays from the sun. 

The axis of the earth, in its journey round the sun, is inclined 
to the plane or level of its orbit. This inclination of the earth's 
axis, in its annual motion round the sun, occasions the diversity of 
the seasons. The lengthening and shortening of the days and the 
different seasons are produced by the motion of the earth in its 
orbit round the sun. 

The Moon, next to the sun, is the most remarkable object in 
the heavens. It is a satellite, or secondary planet to the earth, 
round which it revolves, and by the influence of which it is carried 
round the sun. The average distance of the moon from the earth 
is 240,000 miles ; it turns on its axis in the same time as it per¬ 
forms the revolution round the earth, namely, in about 29J days, 
thence the moon has always the same side towards the earth. Its 
diameter is estimated at 2,178 miles. 

The moon's year is of the same length as that of the earth, but 
the number of its days is very different. To the earth there are 
365J days in a year ; to the moon only about 12J. 

Viewing the moon with a telescope, several curious phenomena 
present themselves. Spots are observed, differing very greatly in 
degrees of brightness; some are almost dark ; many of them 
must be hollows dug into the surface, or valleys lying between 
high mountains, from the nature of the shades of light which they 
exhibit. 

That there are mountains in the moon is made very evident by 
a number of bright spots which are seen in the dark part of the 
face, near to the separation of light and darkness. These are 
rationally supposed to be the tops of eminences, enlightened by 
the rays of the sun, while their lower parts are in darkness. From 
observations which may be easily made by any person, it is found 
that the moon has a motion from west to east. This may be proved 
by looking at the moon upon any clear evening, and observing its 
distance from some brilliant star; the next evening the distance 
between the moon and star will be considerably altered: if the 
star be eastward of the moon, the apparent distance between will 
be first diminished, then the moon will pass by the star, and after¬ 
wards the distance will become greater ; but if the star be to the 
west of the moon, the distance will for many evenings continue to 
increase. After 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes the moon 


44 0 


1 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


and star will be at precisely the same distance as at first. This time 
is not, however, what we call a month, which is the interval between 
new moon and new moon, and is 29 days, 12 hours, 42 minutes, 
pearly. This difference is caused by the motion of the earth in 
its orbit. Now what is called new moon takes place when the 
moon is between the earth and the sun, for then its dark part is 
entirely turned towards us, and full moon is when the earth is 
between the moon and the sun, and then we see the whole en¬ 
lightened part. 

1 he rising and setting of the moon is most interesting at or 
near the full moon. At full moon, as we have seen, it is opposite 
the sun, and in or nearly the same plane ; when the sun is above 
the horizon, the moon is below, and when the moon is visible, the 
sun is no longer so. 

Hence at midsummer, when its light is least wanted, the moon 
at full is very little above the horizon. In midwinter at full, when 
the sun is but a short time visible, the moon being in the opposite 
side of the plane, remains long above the horizon, and the quantity 
of moonlight is greatest at a season when its presence is most 
wanted; and this is more remarkable as we approach the poles ; 
at that region, in midwinter, the moon does not set for fifteen days 
together. 

The moon rises later every day; this is called its retardation; 
but this varies at different seasons of the year: sometimes the 
difference is nearly an hour, sometimes only a quarter of an hour, 
and in the autumn the alteration of the time of rising is the least. 

At the autumnal equinox, as we have said before, the moon is 
in that part of its orbit where the time of its rising, on successive 
evenings, alters the least; in fact, its daily variation is not more 
than a few minutes for several days. Now, the full moon being 
opposite the sun, the moon will rise as the sun sets, that is, about 
six o’clock in the evening, which is the time of sunset at that 
season of the year. The next evening it will rise only a few 
minutes after six, and so on, a little later for several successive even¬ 
ings. This unusual circumstance happening at a time when the 
industry of the husbandman is stimulated by the hope of gathering' 
the rich reward of the harvest, the moon, which is at or near the 
autumnal equinox, is called the harvest moon. 

Mars (fig. 5) is not so bright as Venus or Jupiter ; its colour 
is a dusky red hue. The day of Mars exceeds ours by one 
hour. Mars seems to have an atmosphere, and near its poles 
shining masses have been seen, which increase or diminish accord¬ 
ing as they approach or recede from the sun: these have been 
supposed to be vast icebergs. 



ASTRONOMY. 


441 


The Asteroides. —The four newly discovered planets, re¬ 
volving between Mars and Jupiter, are of such diminutive size as 
to bear no proportion to the others. It is, however, fully ascer¬ 
tained that they have all the properties of planets. 

Vesta (fig. 6) was first seen by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 
the 29th of March, 1807; it appears like a star of the fifth 
magnitude. 

Juno (fig. 7) was discovered by M. Harding, on the 1st of 
September, 1804; this planet and Ceres, the next in order, 
appear like stars of the eighth magnitude. 

Ceres (fig. 8) was discovered on the first day of the present 
century by M. Piazzi, an Italian astronomer. 

Pallas (fig. 9) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, on the 28th 
of March, 1802, and appears like a star of the seventh magnitude. 

Jupiter (fig. 10) is the largest planet of our system, its 
diameter being 88,000 miles, or eleven times greater than the 
diameter of the earth. It is, next to Venus, the most brilliant of 
the planets, and sometimes even surpasses it in brightness. 
Jupiter is attended by four moons, which are frequently eclipsed 
by the shadow of the planet falling upon them. The eclipses of 
Jupiter’s satellites have been very useful in determining the 
longitudes of places, and the velocity of light. The first satellite 
appears to them with a disk four times greater than that of our 
moon, as it appears to us. In the short space of forty-two hours 
it goes through all its changes, from new to full, and thence to 
new again, being itself eclipsed, and causing an eclipse on the 
surface of Jupiter. 

Saturn (fig. 11) can scarcely be seen by the naked eye. 
When viewed with a telescope, it presents a most singular ap¬ 
pearance ; the planet is encircled by a broad ring, of a brilliancy 
always equal to, and sometimes surpassing, that of the planet. 
The ring, like Saturn, is opaque, for it has been seen like a dark 
band upon the surface of the planet; hence both derive their 
light from the sun. The rings and the satellites of Saturn thus 
reflect the sun’s light upon the planet, and Saturn, in his turn, 
illuminates them. This planet is accompanied by seven moons, 
one of which, the sixth in distance from him, has been long dis¬ 
covered. The first and second were observed by the indefatigable 
Sir William Herschel. Both Jupiter and Saturn appear to have 
atmospheres, and that of the latter seems to be exceedingly 
dense. 

The Georgium Sidus, (fig. 12,) so called by its discoverer in 
honour of George III. has six satellites, all of which were dis¬ 
covered by Herschel. This planet is frequently called Herschel, 

3 L 


An 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION- 


from the name of him who connected it with the solar system ; 
but by foreign astronomers it is almost universally termed Uranus. 

It seems to be placed on the confines of the solar system, 
being at the vast distance 1,800,000,000 miles from the sun ; 
and the period of its revolution, which is eighty-five years, exceeds 
the ordinary span of human existence. 

The following table will give the diameters of the sun and 
planets; the mean distances of the planets from the sun; and 
the time occupied in their diurnal and annual revolutions. 


*--- 

NAMES. 

Diameter. 

Mean Distance 

from the Sun. 

Rotation 
upon Axis. 

Periodical 
Revolutions about 
the Sun. 

The Sun . 

Miles. 

883,230 

3,168 

Miles. 

Days. Hs. Ms. Sec. 

25 9 56 0 

Days. Hs. Ms. 

Mercury. 

36,973,282 

1 0 5 28 

87 23 15 

Venus. 

7,816 

69,088,240 

0 23 20 54 

224 16 49 

The Earth .... 

7,964 

95,513,794 

0 23 56 4 

365 5 48 

Mars . 

Vesta. 

Juno. 

Ceres . 

| Pallas . 

4,221 

238 

119 

163 

147 

145,533,667 

225,435,000 

253,380,485 

262,903,570 

262,921,240 

1 0 39 21 

686 23 30 
1.335 4 55 

1,590 23 57 
1,681 12 56 
1,681 17 1 

Jupiter. 

90,466 

494,265,155 

0 9 55 33 

4,332 14 39 

Saturn . 

77,194 

906,183,000 

0 10 16 0 

10,758 23 16 

Herschel. 

34,248 

1,822,413,975 

Mean Distance 
from 

the Earth. 

1 18 30 0 

30,688 17 6 

Periodical 
Revolutions about 
the Earth. 

The Moon ... 

2,178 

240,911 

29 12 44 2 

29 12 44 


COMETS. 

Comets are luminous bodies moving in eccentric orbits, ana 
undoubtedly forming a part of the solar system. They are not so 
bright as the planets, but are accompanied by a nebulous (i. e. 
cloudy) appearance, which, increasing, sometimes terminates in a 
train of considerable length, and of a substance extremely thin, 
since the stars are seen through it. This appearance, named the 
tail of the comet, is seen to issue from them in a direction 
opposite the sun, and increases as the comet approaches that 
luminary, decreases as the comet departs from the sun, and then 
gradually disappears. 

The appearance of comets, followed by these trains of light, has 
for a long time terrified mankind, always agitated by extraordinary 
events of which the causes are unknown. The light of science 
has dispelled these vain fears; no longer do we look upon the 




































AST KONOMY. 


443 


approach of comets as a herald of war or pestilence. Many of them 
are found to obey laws similar to those which bind together in a 
system the planetary bodies : their return has been predicted, and 
the prediction has been verified; we conclude, therefore, that by 
these laws the motions of all the comets are regulated. The 
motions of more than one hundred have been computed, and it 
has been supposed that there are at least a thousand which range 
within the earth’s orbit. 

Comets traverse all parts of the heavens; their paths have 
every possible inclination to the plane of the ecliptic, and, unlike 
the planets, the motion of more than half of those that have 
appeared have been retrograde. They are only visible when near 
their perihelia, or in that part of their orbit which is nearest the 
sun. Dr. Halley computed the elements* of the orbit of a comet 
that appeared in the year 1682, which agreed so nearly with those 
of the comets of 1607 and 1531, that he concluded it to be the 
same body returning to the sun, at intervals of about seventy-five 
years. He consequently predicted its reappearance in the year 
1758, or in the beginning of 1759. Science was not sufficiently 
advanced in the time of Halley (who died in 1712,) to enable 
him to determine the perturbations, or irregularities of motion, 
this comet might experience; but Clairaut computed that it 
w r ould be retarded in its motion a hundred days by the attraction 
of Saturn, and 518 by that of Jupiter, and consequently that it 
would pass its perihelium about the middle of April, 1759, re¬ 
quiring 618 days more to arrive at that point than in its pre¬ 
ceding revolution. This, however, he considered only to be an 
approximation, and that it might be thirty days more or less: the 
return of the comet on the 12th of March, 1759, proved the 
truth of the prediction. MM. Damoiseau and Pontecoulant pre¬ 
dicted that this comet would return in November 1835. 

Various other calculations of the period of its return were also 
made, but these were all set at rest by its actual appearance before 
the time predicted. By observations made at the observatory at 
Rome we learn that a comet, answering to the description, was 
visible there so early as the month of August 1835, and it is well 
known that it was seen in England in September of the same 
year, and continued visible for several months. By an observation 

* The elements of a comet.—This is a term used by astronomers to describe 
in degrees the orbit or path of a comet through the heavens with other pheno¬ 
mena. The elements us-ually consist of, 1. The longitude of its ascending node, 
or point in which it intersects the plane of the ecliptic: 2. The inclination of 
the orbit on the plane of the ecliptic : 3 The longitude of the perihelium : 4. The 
perihelium distance from the sun : 5 . The time of the year at which it arrives at 
the perihelium distance: and 6. The direction of a comet’s motion. 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


444 

made at the observatory at Kensington, we learn that it exhibited 
an appearance resembling two tails; the one in a line with the 
other; they lay in the south preceding and north following quad¬ 
rants, and were inclined to the parallel, at an angle of about 75 
degrees. The nucleus was very brilliant, extremely well defined, 
and bore any lamp illumination whatever. The appearance which 
the observer designates its second tail Avas perfectly visible with a 
five-feet achromatic. This is the first comet Avhose periodical 
return has been established; it is also the first whose elements 
have been determined from observations made in Europe, for 
although the comets which appeared in the years 240, 439, 565, 
and 837, are the most ancient whose orbits have been traced, their 
elements were computed from Chinese observations. 

Besides Halley's comet, two others are now proved to form 
part of our system ; that is to say, they return to the sun at 
intervals, one of 1207 days, and the other of 6f years, nearly. 
The first, generally called Encke’s comet, or the comet of the 
short period, was first seen by MM. Messier and Mechain in 
1786, again by Miss Herschel in 1795, and its returns in the 
years 1805 and 1819 were observed by other astronomers, under 
the impression that all four were different bodies; however. 
Professor Encke not only proved their identity, but determined 
the circumstances of the comet’s motion. Its reappearance in the 
years 1825, 1828, and 1832 accorded with the orbit assigned by 
M. Encke, who thus established the length of its period to be 
1207 days, nearly. 

The other comet belonging to our system, which returns to its 
perihelium after a period of 6f years, has been accelerated in its 
motion by a whole day during its last revolution, Avhich puts the 
existence of either beyond a doubt, and forms a strong presumption 
in corroboration of the undulating theory of light. The comet 
in question was discovered by M. Biela at Johannisberg on 
the 27th of February, 1826, and ten days afterwards it was 
seen by M. Gambert at Marseilles, who computed its parabolic 
elements, and found that they agreed with those of the comets 
which had appeared in the years 1789 and 1795, whence he con¬ 
cluded them to be the same body moving in an ellipsis, and accom¬ 
plishing its revolution in 2460 days. 

Though already so well acquainted with the motions of comets, 
we know nothing of their physical constitution. A vast number, 
especially of telescopic comets, are only like clouds, or masses of 
vapour, often without tails. Such were the comets which appeared 
in the years 1795, 1797, and 1798; but the head commonly 
consists dt a mass of light, like a planet surrounded by a very 


ASTRONOMY. 


445 

transparent atmosphere, the whole, viewed with a telescope, being 
so diaphanous, that the smallest star may be seen even through 
the densest part of the nucleus; and in general their masses, 
when they have any, are so minute that they have no sensible 
diameter. . The tads of comets proceed from the head in two 
streams of light somewhat like that of the aurora; these in most 
cases unite at a greater or less distance from the nucleus, and are 
generally situated in the planes of their orbits; they follow the 
comets in their descent towards the sun, but precede them in their 
return with a small degree of curvature, probably owing to the 
resistance of the ether, but their extent and form must vary in 
appearance according to the positions of their orbits with regard 
to the ecliptic. The matter of the tail must be extremely buoyant 
to precede a body moving with such velocity; indeed the rapidity 
of its ascent can only be accounted for by the fervent heat of the 
sun. Immediately after the great comet of 1680 had passed its 
perihelium, its tail was 20,000,000 leagues in length, and was pro¬ 
jected from the comet’s head in the short space of two days.- In 
general the light of comets is dull, but some have been brilliant 
enough to be visible in full day-light, especially the comet of 
1744, which was seen without a telescope at one o’clock in the 
afternoon, while the sun was shining. Whether they shine by 
their own or by reflected light has never been satisfactorily con¬ 
jectured till now. M. Arago, however, has with great ingenuity 
discovered a method of ascertaining this point, from which it may 
be concluded that comets shine by reflecting the sun’s light. 

ECLIPSES. 

When any heavenly body is obscured or darkened by the 
shadow of another falling upon it, it is said to be eclipsed. An 
eclipse of the moon can only take place by some dark body 
coming between it and the sun : this dark body is the earth ; for 
eclipses of the moon only take place when it is full, and then 
the earth lies between the sun and moon. The globe of the earth 
casts behind it relatively to the sun a shadow of a conical shape, the 
length of which is three times the distance of the moon from the 
earth ; its breadth, where the moon crosses it, is about double of 
the lunar diameter ; and the direction of the middle of this cone 
is a line joining the centres of the sun and earth. Now at the 
full the moon is also in the same direction; it would therefore be 
eclipsed every month if its orbit were not inclined to that of the 
earth ; but as it is inclined, the moon is sometimes above, some¬ 
times below the shadow, and consequently this phenomenon does 


446 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


not always happen. II the whole disk is immersed in the shadow, 
the eclipse is said to be total; and to be partial when only a por¬ 
tion of the disk is obscured. 

An eclipse of the sun happens at new moon, for then the moon 
is between the earth and the sun, and the moon inteicepts the 
rays of light proceeding from the sis.n, and hinders them from 
falling upon the earth. 

The number of eclipses that can happen in a year is seven, five^ 
of the sun and two of the moon, or four of the sun, and three ot 
the moon. 

The i •eason why partial eclipses of the sun take place is that 
it seldom happens that the sun, earth, and moon, have their centres 
exactly in the same line; and the infrequency of eclipses is 
caused by the orbit of the moon not being coincident with that 
of the earth. 

The beginning and end of solar eclipses can be observed with 
great accuracy, and are sometimes used in determining the 
longitude of places on the earth s surface. 

TIDES. 

That periodical ebbing and flowing of the sea, denominated 
the tides, was a subject of considerable speculation to the ancient 
philosophers ; but before the Christian era, the theory ot the 
tides was absolutely unknown. During the first and second 
centuries, however, Pliny, Ptolemy, and others, began to suspect 
that the phenomena of the tides were influenced by the attraction 
of the sun and moon; but we are indebted to our illustrious 
countryman, Sir Isaac Newton, for the general development of 
the first rational theory of the tides. 

It is acknowledged that there are still some difficulties at¬ 
tending this subject, but in general terms it may be stated as 
follows:—the ebbing and flowing of the sea is owing to the at¬ 
traction of the sun and moon, and chiefly to that of the latter. 
This attraction cannot alter the shape of the solid parts of the 
earth, but it has a great effect on the water, and causes it to 
assume a spheroidal figure, the longest axis being in the direction 
of the moon. 

To explain this, let us suppose that the whole earth is covered 
with water; then, if there were no attraction arising from any 
external body, the water would gird the sphere of the earth, 
lying upon it like the rind of the orange, but always at the same 
depth. 

But the moon attracts the earth, and by this attraction draws 


ASTRONOMY. 


447 


under her the waters of the earth, so that the waters stand indeed 
upon a heap under her disk. As the earth revolves round its axis, 
successive portions of its surface pass under the moon, and these 
places have successively high water. Six hours after the high 
tide, the waters are at their lowest ebb, and in six hours more, we 
have high tide again. When the moon and sun both act in the 
same direction upon the waters, the tides are the largest; this 
happens at new and full moon, and the tides are called spring 
tides ; but when they act in contrary directions, the tides are 
called neap, and are then the lowest; this happens at the end of 
the first and beginning of the third quarters of the moon. 

In the preceding illustration of the cause of the tides, it is 
assumed that the place of high water is directly under the moon ; 
this, however, is not the case. For although the waters directly 
under the moon are drawn towards it with greater force than any 
other part of the ocean, yet the water will not have reached its 
greatest height at any particular place till some hours after the 
moon has passed its meridian. For the waters attracted to the 
moon, when at this particular spot, will, from the impulse given, 
continue to flow to it, and rise there, until the moon, over¬ 
coming this impulse by a new one, shall draw them to some 
other spot. 


THE FIXED STARS. 

The stars, which are called fixed in contradistinction of the 
planets, are supposed by astronomers to be each of them a sun, 
shining by its own light, and accompanied by its circle of planets. 
These stars are separated from each other by distances at least as 
great as the nearest fixed star is from our sun. They are com¬ 
monly classed into magnitudes, according to their appearance 
from our earth ; the largest are called stars of the first magnitude, 
and the others in proportion. Although the stars appear to us 
so innumerable, this is a deception, occasioned probably by the 
refraction and reflection of the rays of light passing from them 
through our atmosphere. There are seldom more than 2,000 stars 
seen with the naked eye, at any one time; several millions more 
are, however, occasionally visible by the assistance of the best 
telescopes, and new ones are continually discovered by every 
improvement in that instrument. 

The ancients, for the convenience of referring to the different 
stars, divided them into groups, or constellations, to which they 
gave the names of animals, or of inanimate things, which they were 
supposed to resemble ; as the Great Bear, the Northern Crown, &c. 


448 


YOUNG Ma/s companion. 


The constellations are divided into three principal classes; those 
on the northern side of the equator are called northern constella¬ 
tions, and those on the opposite, southern constellations; while 
those which are situated about that part of the celestial hemi¬ 
sphere where the principal planets move, are called zodiacal 
constellations. 

The zodiac is an imaginary belt, encircling the heavens, about 
sixteen or twenty degrees broad. In the centre of this zone, 
or belt, is the ecliptic, or line which the sun appears to describe, 
as the earth moves round in its annual circuit. On this line are 
found the twelve zodiacal constellations, each thirty degrees in 
breadth, so as to fill up the entire circle of 360 degrees, which 
the heavens are divided into. They are marked and numbered 
in the following order :— 

Character. Name. Time of the Sun’s ingress. 


<Y> Aries, 

the Ram, 

About March 21st. 

& Taurus, 

the Bull, 

April 20th. 

n Gemini, 

the Twins, 

May 21st. 

03 Cancer, 

the Crab, 

June 21st. 

& Leo, 

the Lion, 

July 23d. 

np Virgo, 

the Virgin, 

August 23d. 

Libra, 

the Balance, 

September 23(J. 

tti Scorpio, 

the Scorpion, 

October 23d. 

$ Sagittarius, the Archer, 

November 22d. 

Vf Capricornus, the Goat, 

December 21st. 

ZZ Aquarius, 

the Waterman, 

January 20th. 

X Pisces, 

the Fishes, 

February 29th. 

The other northern constellations are 

thirty-four in number ; 

the ancient and principal ones are mentioned in the annexed 

catalogue :— 



Names. 

Principal Stars. Magn. 

Ursa Major, 

the Greater Bear, 

Dubhe, 1 

Ursa Minor, 

the Lesser Bear, 

Pole Star, 2 

Perseus, 


Algenib, 2 

Auriga, 

the Waggoner, 

Capella, 1 

Bootes, 


Arcturus, 1 

Draco, 

the Dragon. 


Triangulum, 

the Triangle. 


Corona Borealis, 

the Northern Crown. 


Serpens, 

the Serpent. 


Hercules, with the Branch. 


Lyra, 

the Harp, 

Vega, 1 


ASTRONOMY. 


419 


Sagitta, 

Aquila, 

Delphinus, 

Cygnus, 

Cassiopia, 

Pegasus, 

Andromeda. 


Names. 

the Arrow, 
the Eagle, 
the Dolphin, 
the Swan, 

the Lady in her chair. 


Principal Stars; Magn. 

Altair, 1 

Deneb Adige, 1 

/ 


There are forty-five constellations in the Southern Hemisphere, 
the principal of which are the following :— 



Names. 

Principal Stars. 

Magn, 

Eridanus, 

the River Po, 

Achernar, 

1 

Cetus, 

Noah’s Dove, 

the Whale. 

Betelgense, 

1 

Orion, 


Canopus, 

1 

Argo Navis, 
Canis Major, 

the Ship Argo, 
the Greater Dog, 

Sirius, 

1 

Canis Minor, 

the Lesser Dog, 

Procyon, 

Cor Hydrae, 

1 

Hydra, 

1 

Piscis Australis, 

or the Southern Fish, 

Fomalhaut, 

1 


It has already been remarked, that about 2000 stars only are 
visible to the naked eye; but when we view the heavens with a 
telescope, their number seems to be limited only by the im¬ 
perfection of the instrument. In one hour Sir William Herschel 
estimated that 50,000 stars passed through the field of his tele¬ 
scope, in a zone of the heavens 2° in breadth. This, however, was 
stated as an instance of extraordinary crowding; but at an 
average, the whole expanse of the heavens must exhibit about a 
hundred millions of fixed stars, that come within the reach of 
telescopic vision. 

The stars are scattered very irregularly over the firmament. 
In some places they are crowded together, in others thinly dis¬ 
persed. A few groups more closely condensed, form yery beautiful 
objects, even to the naked eye; but the greater number of these 
clusters of stars appear to unassisted vision like thin white 
clouds or vapours: such is the Milky Way, which, as Sir 
William Herschel has proved, derives its brightness from the 
diffused light of the myriads of stars that form it. This singular 
portion of the heavens, constituting part of our firmament, con¬ 
sists of an extensive stratum of stars, whose thickness is small 
compared with its length and breadth : the earth is placed about 
midway between its two surfaces, near the point where it diverges 

3 M 


450 


rOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


into two branches. Many clusters of stars appear like white 
clouds, or round comets without tails, either to unassisted vision 
or with ordinary telescopes; but with powerful instruments Sir 
John Herschel describes them as conveying the idea of a globular 
space, filled full of stars insulated in the heavens, and constituting 
a family, or society, apart from the rest, subject only to its own 
internal laws. To attempt to count the stars in one of these 
globular clusters, he says, would be a vain task; that they are 
not to be reckoned by hundreds ; and, on a rough computation, 
it appears that many clusters of this description must contain ten 
or twenty thousand stars, compacted and wedged together in a 
round space, whose area is not more than a tenth part of that 
covered by the moon. 

“ It is very probable,’ 1 says Sir William Herschel, “ that the 
great stratum called the Milky Way, is that in which the sun is 
placed, though, perhaps, not in the very centre of its thickness. 
We gather this from the appearance of the galaxy, which seems 
to encompass the whole heavens, as it constantly must do if the 
sun was in the same. For, suppose a number of stars arranged 
between two parallel planes, indefinitely extended every way, 
but at a considerable distance from each other, and calling 
this a siderial stratum, an eye placed somewhere within it will 
see all the stars, in the direction of the planes of stratum, pro¬ 
jected into a great circle, which will appear lucid on account of 
the accumulation of the stars; while the rest of the heavens, at 
the sides, will only seem to be scattered over with constellations 
more or less crowded, according to the distance of the planes, 
or number of stars contained in the thickness or sides of the 
stratum 

After a long investigation of the form of this stratum, Sir 
W illiam Herschel was enabled to give a figure of what he con¬ 
ceived to be a section of it. This is represented in Plate 
Astronomy , fig. 1. If the celestial globe be adjusted to 55° and <7, 
Ceti, be brought to the meridian, it will have the plane of this 
section pointed out by the horizon. The most distant star is 
supposed to be about 500 times farther from the sun than 
Sirius. Light would take 20,000 years to traverse the whole 
extent. 

To conclude in the emphatic language of Mrs. Somerville,— 
“ So numerous are the objects which meet our view in the 
heavens, that we cannot imagine a space where some light would 
not strike the eye; innumerable stars, thousands of double and 
multiple systems, cluster in one blaze with their tens of thousands 
of stars, and the nebulae amazing us by the strangeness of their 


ASTRONOMY. 


451 


forms and the incomprehensibility of their nature, till at last, 
from the imperfection of our senses, even these thin and airy 
phantoms vanish in the distance. If such remote bodies shine 
bv reflected light, we should be unconscious of their existence; 
each star must then be a sun, and may be supposed to have 
its system of planets, satellites, and comets, like our own; and, 
for aught we know, myriads of bodies may be wandering in 
space unseen by us, of whose nature we can form no idea, 
and still less of the part they perform in the economy of the 
universe. Nor is this an unwarranted presumption ; many such 
do come within the sphere of the earth’s attraction, are ignited by 
the velocity with which they pass through the atmosphere, and are 
precipitated with great violence on the earth. The fall of meteoric 
stones is much more frequent than is generally believed—hardly a 
year passes without some instances occurring; and if it be considered 
that only a small part of the earth is inhabited, it may be pre¬ 
sumed that numbers fall in the ocean or on the uninhabited part 
of the land, unseen by man. They are sometimes of great magni¬ 
tude ; the volume of several has exceeded that of the planet Ceres, 
which is about seventy miles in diameter. One which passed 
within twenty-five miles of us was estimated to weigh about 
600,000 tons, and to move with a velocity of about twenty miles 
in a second: a fragment of it alone reached the earth. The obli¬ 
quity of the descent of meteorites, the peculiar substances they are 
composed of, and the explosion accompanying their fall, show that 
they are foreign to our system. It has been computed that, if a 
stone were projected from the moon in a vertical line with an 
initial velocity of 10,992 feet in a second, more than four times 
the velocity of a ball when first discharged from a cannon, instead 
of failing back to the moon by the attraction of gravity, it would 
come within the sphere of the earth’s attraction, and revolve about 
it like a satellite. These bodies, impelled either by the direction 
of the primitive impulse or by the disturbing action of the sun, 
might ultimately penetrate the earth’s atmosphere, and arrive at 
its surface. But from whatever source meteoric stones may come, 
it seems highly probable that they have a common origin, from 
the uniformity, we may almost say identity, of their chemical 
composition .”—Connexion of the Physical Sciences , p. 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


45*2 


CHAPTER XI. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


NaturalPhilosophy, also called Physics, is thatscience which 
investigates the powers of nature, the properties of natural bodies, 
and their actions upon each other. Lord Bacon terms natural 
philosophy, the great mother of the sciences; for neither the 
arts of speech, logic, medicine, civil polity, morality, religion, &c., 
can be advantageously instituted, exercised, improved, or under¬ 
stood, without it; and on it the mechanical sciences entirely 
depend. By means of natural philosophy we learn, “ that the 
creation is but an image or picture of the Divine Perfection, and 
therefore bears a character of his infinity and immensity who 
formed and governs it; that this small part of it which we in¬ 
habit, is but a point in comparison of the vast regions of the 
fixed stars; that these superior regions themselves are but a point 
in comparison of the innumerable worlds that perhaps exist, 
and lie hid from us in the bosom of immensity; and that 
in this point which we inhabit, we know only some superficial 
qualities and properties of nature.” 

The object of natural philosophy is the study of the general 
properties of unorganized bodies, or inert substances, in the state 
of solids, liquids, airs, or gases, and those which have been termed 
incoercible or ethereal fluids. The various effects of the motions 
and operations of these bodies have hence been made the founda¬ 
tion of several distinct sciences, or branches of knowledge, as 
Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, Pneumatics, Acoustics, 
Optics, Electricity, Galvinism, Magnetism, including Electro- 
Magnetism, &c. 


Section I. —Mechanics. 

Mechanics (from the Greek word Mr?X«W, signifying a 
machine) is that science which treats of the equilibrium and 
motion of bodies. 

All motions are more or less subject to the laws of mechanics 
anil without a knowledge of those laws, it is impossible to appro- 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY". 


453 


date the effects, or calculate the consequences, of those motions of 
the celestial bodies which occasion the phenomena of Astronomy ; 
or of those properties of fluids on which depend the principles 
of hydrostatics, hydraulics, and pneumatics; or, indeed, of any 
circumstances affecting the ponderable forms of matter; and 
those sciences which relate to heat, light, electro-magnetism, vital 
power, either in animals or vegetables, or any other phenomena 
which appear to be independent of the force of gravitation, yet 
derive most important aid from mechanics; for it is chiefly by 
means of mechanical instruments that the influence of heat, light, 
electricity, magnetism, or the effects of vitality, can be estimated. 
Mechanics may therefore be considered as the basis and ground¬ 
work of the other physical sciences. The properties of matter 
on which the leading principles of mechanics are founded, are those 
of mobility and gravitation. 

Mobility is the capacity of a body for change of place by its 
own motion ; it therefore infers the capability of real or actual 
motion, and not of relative motion only. Yet this change of place 
may sometimes be most readily estimated by the consequent re¬ 
lative motion which accompanies it. Thus, every well-informed 
person now admits that the earth moves, and the sun stands still; 
but the motion of the former is not perceptible, and the apparent 
daily motion of the latter, being so obvious to our senses, was, till 
within the last three centuries, considered as a real motion, the 
existence of which could not even be questioned with impunity. 

The primary law r s of motion, as developed by Aristotle, and 
taught by Galileo, Descartes, and Newton, are as follows: — 

1. Every body continues in a state of rest, or of uniform recti¬ 
lineal motion, until disturbed by some extraneous force. Thus, a 
stone remains in its place till moved, or is carried round in a sling 
or the hand; and a leaf or feather are at rest till impelled by the 
force of wind. 

. 2. The change of motion is always proportional to the impelling 
force, and the line of direction of that force.—Consequently, there 
can be no motion, or power, but what is derived from other 
motions. 

3. Action and reaction are always equal and contrary. Tf a 
man in a boat shove off another boat that comes near to him, his 
own boat is equally moved from its place. If a man in a boat 
pull a rope fastened to something on shore, he is drawn to it by 
the reaction. So when a man pushes off a boat from the shore, 
it is occasioned by the same cause. The quantity of motion by 
a body gained, equals that lost by the body, whatever the direc¬ 
tion, and whether both bodies act from communicated impulse or 


454 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

collision, or from some undetermined agency without touching. 
A boat moved with four oars goes twice as quick as with two. A 
cricket ball, struck with greater force, flies farther in the direction 
of the impulse. 

Gravitation, or gravity, is a species of attraction, and is some¬ 
times styled gravitative attraction ; by which appellation it is dis¬ 
tinguished from cohesive attraction, capillary attraction, magnetic 
attraction, &c. Most of these kinds of attraction are perceived 
only under particular circumstances; but the attraction of gravi¬ 
tation is a common property of all bodies, since every body is more 
or less affected by it. It is by no means inconsistent with this 
statement that some bodies in certain circumstances display the 
contrary phenomenon of ascending from it. Thus smoke will be 
seen, in some states of the atmosphere, rising in a column to a 
considerable height; and it must be readily conceived that all the 
moisture which falls to the earth in the form of rain, snow, or 
hail, must have previously risen by evaporation from the surface 
of the earth. But all these and similar phenomena are in fact so 
many instances of the effect of gravitation, for the ascending bodies 
are driven upward solely by the force of the medium through 
which they pass; since the particles of smoke or vapour, or the 
balloon with its car and contents, cannot advance upward in the 
most minute degree without displacing, or thrusting downward, 
portions of atmosphere equal to their own bulk. All substances, 
then, gravitate towards the earth; that is, they have weight, which 
occasions them to fall to the earth when dropped from a height 
above it; to rest upon it with a certain degree of pressure, ac¬ 
cording to circumstances; or, if rendered buoyant, to rise in the 
atmosphere surrounding the earth, till they reach a part of it where 
it is less dense than near the surface, so that a portion of it, pre¬ 
cisely equal to their bulk, would exactly counterpoise them, and 
there of course they could neither rise nor fall, without an alteration 
of their own weight taking place. 

The influence of gravitation is not only extended to all bodies 
on or near the surface of the earth, but likewise, as we have the 
utmost reason to believe, to all bodies in the universe. Sir Isaac 
Newton discovered-gravity to be the cause of all the motions of 
the heavenly bodies; and that the laws of gravitation displayed in 
the monthly revolution of the moon round the earth, the annual 
circuit of the earth round the sun, and the corresponding motions 
of the othei planets and their satellites, are capable of the strictest 
mathematical demonstration. 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


45i 


THE MECHANIC POWERS. 

This term is usually applied to engines composed on the prin¬ 
ciples of the laws of mechanics, increasing the effect of a given 
power, so that its momentum exceeds that of the resistance; en¬ 
abling men to raise heavy weights, move heavy bodies, and over¬ 
come resistance. It may be proper here to caution the young 
reader against confounding the terms mechanic power and moving 
power. Mechanic powers are machines which facilitate motion, 
as the lever and the screw, while moving powers are the original 
sources of motion, as animal strength, flowing water, &c. The 
principal moving powers are the strength of animals, chiefly of 
men and horses ; the force of running waters, and of wind ; steam; 
metallic springs ; the weight of heavy bodies, &c. 

The mechanic powers may perhaps be most correctly arranged 
under three divisions: 1. The Lever; %. The Multiplied Cord ; 
S. The Inclined Plane. To these some have added the Wheel 
and Axle, the Pulley, the Wedge, and the Screw. But the 
wheel and axle is only a variety of the lever. The pulley, so far 
as it possesses any distinguishing property, must be considered as 
a multiplied cord. The wedge is nothing but a double inclined 
plane, applied in a peculiar manner. The screw is a modification 
of the inclined plane, usually operating through the assistance of 
a lever. 

A Lever, theoretically considered, must be an inflexible rod, 
of uniform weight in every part, turning freely on a fixed point 
or fulcrum. There are three kinds or orders of levers, distin¬ 
guished by the relative positions of the fulcrum and the moving 
power. In all kinds of continuous levers the power is to the resist¬ 
ance, as the distance of the resistance from the fulcrum is to that 
of the power from the fulcrum. A lever of the first kind has 
the fulcrum placed between the weight and the moving power. 

A balance is a lever of the first kind with equal arms ; a steel 
yard is also a lever of the same kind with a movable weight. 

The second kind of lever has the weight between the fulcrum 
at one end, and the power at the other. 

A lever of the third kind has the power between the prop at 
one end, and the weight at the other. Here the power must as 
much exceed the weight, as the distance of the weight from the 
prop exceeds the distance of the power. 

The wheel and axle, though made in many forms, always con¬ 
sists of a cylinder and a wheel attached ; or of a cylinder, with 
projecting spokes. 

The wheel and axle is merely a lever, contrived to have con¬ 
tinued motion round its fulcrum. If the power acts at the end 


456 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

of the bar in the extremity of the wheel, the distance of that 
extremity from the centre is accounted the radius. The crank 
belongs to this power. 

The wheel and axle are employed for large bells, also to move 
the helm of large ships ; and, in some instances, to draw water 
from deep wells. Numerous combinations may be observed in 
spinning manufactories, &c. 

One of the most efficient forms of the wheel and axle is dis¬ 
played in the capstan, used on board ships and dock-yards. See 
Plate 1, Nat . Phil. fig. 1. 

Another modification of the wheel and axle is the tread-wheel, 
(fig. 2,) in which the weight of several persons stepping constantly 
at the circumference of a long wheel, make it revolve by their 
weight. 

I he Multiplied Cord. —To this kind of mechanic power 
may be referred all those cases in which force is transmitted by 
means of flexible cords or chains, from one point to another. 

The pulley is a small wheel turning on an axle, with a small 
rope passing over it. The small wheel is called a sheeve, and is 
movable round a pin passing through the centre of a block. 
This is rather a compound than a simple machine ; for, from the 
investigation of its nature and properties, it will be evident that it 
is merely a combination of the wheel and axle with the multiplied 
cord. 

Pulleys are either fixed or movable. The fixed pulley gives 
no mechanical advantage, but merely changes the direction of the 
power. By it a man, without moving from his place, may raise a 
weight to any height* as a stone to the top of a building ; otherwise 
he must ascend with the weight. 

The Inclined Plane is the least complicated of all the sim¬ 
ple machines. It is, as the name implies, a plane surface, supposed 
to be perfectly smooth and unyielding, inclined obliquely to an 
horizontal plane ; and its effect, as commonly used, is to diminish 
resistance, and thus enable a moderate power to sustain or over¬ 
balance a great weight. 

The wedge may be considered as two equally inclined planes 
united at their bases. The advantage gained is in proportion as 
the length of the two sides of the wedge is greater than the back, 
or, as the length of one side is greater than half the back. 

The screw, though commonly reckoned among the mechanic 
powers or simple machines, cannot be considered as such when ap¬ 
plied to any practical purpose, as it would be found almost wholly 
ineffective without the assistance of the lever, which is therefore 
usually combined with it, and thus it becomes a most powerful 
machine, applicable to a variety of important purposes. 


TZSTE ,7 




NAT IT RAL 


PI 3 LOSOPIT . 



; <N. GKO.R.CK VIRTUE . 

































































































































































































NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


457 


The screw is a spiral groove or thread winding round a cylinder so 
as to cut all the lines drawn on its surface parallel to the axis at the 
same angle. The spiral may be on either the concave or convex 
surface, and be thence called interior or exterior, female or male. 
Most kinds of presses, common corkscrews, &c. act upon this prin¬ 
ciple. When a screw turns in a wheel, it is called an endless 
screw ; forming a part of a compound machine of considerable 
power and utility. Fly-wheels, as that of a common jack for 
roasting meat, are sometimes turned by the action of a toothed 
wheel on an endless screw. 

Compound Machinery. —It is by means of combinations of 
the simple machines together, or with each other, that a vast mul¬ 
titude of complex machines are produced, which are employed in 
the arts, manufactures, and domestic economy. Among all the 
simple machines there is none so generally useful as the wheel 
and axle; hence there are few complex machines of which wheels 
do not constitute the most effective or essential parts. Thus are 
formed a vast variety of mills, from the coffee-mill to the powerful 
and complicated engine called a rolling-mill ; all the multifarious 
kinds of wheel-carriages, spinning-jennies, and many other 
machines used in the cotton, linen, woollen, and silk manufactures; 
and steam-engines under their various modifications. The peculiar 
methods in which the parts of machinery are connected, or the 
modes of action of one mechanic power upon another, or upon a 
different form of the same power, are variously diversified to 
suit particular purposes. But this embraces a field of operation 
too large to form the subject of our present inquiry. 

Section II.— Hydrostatics. 

The term Hydrostatics properly denotes the stability of water; 
or, in a more extensive acceptation, the pressure and equilibrium 
of liquids at rest. As the science of mechanics treats of the 
properties of weight and mobility in solid bodies, so hydrostatics 
relates to the peculiar effects of the weight and mobility of liquids 
These differ in some of their distinguishing properties from solids, 
and in others from gases, or aerial fluids ; forming an intermediate 
class of bodies. Viscous fluids, as train-oil or treacle, approach to 
the nature of solids ; and, indeed, the distinction between such 
liquid substances and some of the softer solids, as butter or honey, 
depends much on their relation to heat, their consistence or re¬ 
lative density varying with the temperature to which they are 
exposed. The peculiar degrees of density and tenacity of unor¬ 
ganized substances constituting the respective states of solidity 

O N 


458 


YOUNG MAN^ COMPANION. 


and fluidity, with their various modifications, seem to be chiefly 
influenced "by heat and pressure; so that a particular substance, 
as water, may exist under# different forms, depending on the cir¬ 
cumstances in which it is placed. Thus a certain degree of cold 
will convert water into a hard solid, as ice, or hail, which when 
melted by heat again produces water, and this, when exposed to 
a sufficiently high temperature, will evaporate or become steam, 
which may be again condensed or restored to the liquid state by 
cold. Mercury commonly occurs in the form of a very dense 
liquid, but it may, like water, be condensed or frozen by ex¬ 
posure to an extremely low temperature, and be made to boil or 
evaporate by subjecting it to a great degree of heat. Since then 
the same kind of matter may exist under different states or forms, 
it follows that liquids must be composed of the same particles as 
solids, and the difference between a liquid and a solid may be con¬ 
ceived to arise merely from peculiar modifications of the cohesive 
attraction which takes place between the constituent molecules or 
particles of such bodies respectively. The cohesive attraction 
between the particles of liquids is demonstrated bv the globular 
figure which they assume, when no external force interferes with 
the aggression of the mass. This appears in the case of mercury 
thrown in small portions on a china plate, or on any surface which 
exercises on it no chemical attraction ; when the minute portions 
into which it will become separated will be found to be perfect 
spherules, the larger ones only being slightly flattened by the 
pressure occasioned by their own Aveight on the plate. 

That liquids as well as solids possess weight was never denied; 
since every one must have learnt from experience, that a cup or a 
bucket filled with water would require a greater exertion of force to 
lift it than when the water was removed. The apparent diminution 
of the weight of bodies under water, is owing to the particles of the 
liquid mass gravitating equally in every direction; so that the 
interior portions of any liquid, or of solids immersed in liquids, 
are subject to the same degree of pressure on all sides; and there¬ 
fore a body surrounded by water is partially supported by it, and 
consequently may be raised through the liquid with greater ease 
than in the air, a fluid the relative density of which is so very incon¬ 
siderable. Liquids are not less powerfully affected by gravitative 
attraction than solids, but they exhibit different appearances under 
its influence, owing to their being constituted differently, so that 
their particles move freely and almost independently of each other. 
All tlie constituent particles of a solid are firmly connected, and 
they thus act with combined effect in producing pressure or im¬ 
pact ; but a liquid yields to force in any direction, and is liable to 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 




be separated into small masses, the effect of which is comparatively 
inconsiderable. 

Liquids press not only like solids perpendicularly downwards, 
but also upwards, sideways, and in every direction. A fluid in an 
open vessel assumes a flat surface, parallel to the horizon, and will 
remain at rest, or rise to a common level. 

The horizontal bottom of a vessel sustains the pressure of a 
column of the fluid whose base is that bottom, and the perpen¬ 
dicular height, the depth of the fluid. The pressure of a fluid 
upon any given part of the bottom or sides of the vessel, is equal 
to the weight of a column of that fluid, having a base equal to 
that part of the bottom or side, and an altitude equal to the per¬ 
pendicular height. 

The pressure of fluids differs from their gravity or weight, 
the weight agreeing with the quantity, but the pressure with the 
perpendicular height. 

The effect of the vertical pressure of liquids may be variously 
exhibited. Hence the principle involving the peculiar mode of 
pressure of liquid masses has been termed the Hydrostatic 
Paradox. It may be illustrated by the following experiment. 
Let a cup or wide-mouthed jar, filled with water, be poised by 
hanging it to the arm of a balance, and loading the opposite scale 
whh the requisite weights ; then, after marking exactly the height 
at which the liquid stands, pour out a part of it, and plunge into 
the midst of the jar a conical block of wood, supporting it with 
the hand or any other means, taking care that the block shall not 
touch the sides or bottom of the jar. If it be plunged just deep 
enough to raise the remaining liquid to the same height as at first, 
the balance will be again exactly equipoised; and the block may 
be so large as to leave only a thin film or hollow cylinder of the 
fluid without at all disturbing the equilibrium* It is of no con¬ 
sequence what is the weight or shape of the body introduced, for 
a piece of cork or a blown bladder held in the jar will produce the 
same effect, if its bulk be sufficient to raise the water to the re¬ 
quired height. 

The uniform pressure of liquids in every direction, causes them 
to assume a level surface under all circumstances. This property 
of liquids has been advantageously employed in the construction 
of instruments for ascertaining the relative heights of any given 
points, as in taking levels in surveying, and in various operations 
in which it is requisite to determine the accuracy of an horizontal 
plane. By means of this principle water may be conveyed in 
pipes or tunnels from a lake or reservoir underneath streets and 
buildings to any given distance, and supplied to the differed* 


460 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION 

V 

quarters of a city or town, at any height not exceeding that of its 
source. 

By the specific gravity of bodies is understood the relative 
weight of equal bulks of different bodies. A cubic foot of cork is 
not of equal weight with a cubic foot of water, marble, or lead; 
but the water is four times heavier than the cork, the marble eleven 
times, and the lead forty-five times ; or, a cubic foot of lead would 
weigh forty-five of cork, &c. &c. When two or more liquids, 
differing from each other in specific gravity, are placed in contact, 
as when included in a glass jar or bottle, unless they are capable 
of uniting to form a chemical compound, it will be perceived that 
each liquid becomes arranged in a separate and distinct stratum, the 
heaviest, or that which has the greatest specific gravity, sinking to 
the bottom of the jar, the next heaviest above it, and the others, 
in the same manner, taking their places according to their respec¬ 
tive degrees of specific gravity. Thus, mercury, water, olive-oil, 
and sulphuric ether, might be poured into the same phial, in which 
they would form separate layers, standing one above another in 
the order in which they have been mentioned. Many liquids, 
differing in specific gravity, may be mixed by agitation, so as to 
form a compound ; but if the lighter liquid be poured gently on 
the surface of the heavier, they will for a long time remain distinct, 
but little action taking place even where their surfaces meet. 
Bodies, differing in specific gravity, and incapable of combination, 
may be taken together in a phial, and mixed for a time, but will 
separate completely on being allowed to remain at rest. 

In comparing the relative or specific gravities of bodies, it is 
necessary that there should be some standard to which the re¬ 
spective weights may be referred. The extraordinary power of 
water to resist compression by mere mechanic force, except under 
such circumstances as can rarely take place, is one of the advan¬ 
tages it presents as a common standard; but in the prosecution 
of experiments of a delicate nature, the pressure of the atmosphere 
must be taken into the account in order to ensure accuracy in the 
results of our calculations. Now it is a well ascertained fact that 
water attains the utmost degree of density just before it freezes, its 
bulk being relatively less at about 40° of Fahrenheit, or 8° above 
the freezing point, than at any point either higher or lower in the 
scale. The difference of the weight of a cubic inch of distilled water 
at 40° and at 60° is somewhat less than half a grain troy, whence it 
may be made to appear from calculation that a cubic foot of pure 
water, at its greatest density, weighs almost exactly 1000 ounces 
avoirdupois, or pounds. If, therefore, the specific gravity of 
water be represented by the number 1000, each of the numbers 




natural philosophy. 


461 


in the following table will express the corresponding weights of a 
cubic foot of the several bodies included in it. 


Specific gravities of various bodies as compared with water at 60°. 


Platina, laminated. 22,069 

Gold, standard, 22 carats.17,486 

Mercury, fluid.13,568 

Lead, cast.11,352 

Silver, cast.10,474 

Copper, cast.8,788 

Iron, malleable.7,788 

Tin, cast.7,291 

Zinc, cast.7,190 

Diamond.3,521 

Parian marble, white.2,837 

Flint.2,596 

Coal.1,270 

Seawater.1,030 

Ice. 930 

Alcohol. 797 

Olive oil. 915 

Milk, cow’s.1,032 

Mahogany.1,062 

Heart of oak, sixty yards felled . . . 1,170 

Cork. 240 

Carbonic acid, or fixed air ... 1.64 

Oxygen gas.1.34 

Azotic, or nitrogen gas.0.98 

Hydrogen gas. . . 0.08 

Atmospheric air. 1.21 


Capillary Attraction. —This phenomenon, which takes 
place in tubes open at both ends, or between solid plates nearly in 
contact, is styled capillary attraction ; the term is derived from 
capillus , a hair, or capilaris , hair-like, in reference to the small 
bore of tubes which produce these effects. Instances of the ope¬ 
ration of this principle are constantly taking place around us. If 
a slice of stale bread an inch square, and three or four in length, 
be held perpendicularly with one end immersed in a small 
quantity of water or milk, the liquid will ascend through the pores 
of the bread till it is entirely absorbed, and if there is a sufficient 
quantity of it, the bread will become saturated with the moisture. 
It is in consequence of the capillary attraction that a sponge imbibes 
water, blotting paper absorbs ink, or that oil rises amidst the 
fibres of the cotton wick of a lamp. These effects are manifestly 






















\ 


462 YOUNG man’s companion. 

owing to a common cause, and we learn from experiment that it 
is only under certain conditions that they take place. Some re¬ 
marks have been introduced relative to the effect of cohesive 
attraction on the particles of liquids, and the modifications pro¬ 
duced by the attraction of solids with which the liquids may come 
in contact. It is on the joint operation of these causes under 
particular circumstances that the phenomena of capillarity appear 
to depend. 


Section III. — Hydraulics. 

Hydraulics teaches how to estimate the velocity and force of 
fluids in motion. On its principles are constructed all machines 
worked by water, as engines, mills, pumps, fountains, &c. 

Fluids may be conveyed over hills and valleys in bended pipes, 
to any height not greater than the level of the spring from whence 
they flow. Upon this principle fountains are formed: for if near 
the bottom of any vessel a small pipe bending upwards be fastened, 
the water will spout out through the pipe, and rise nearly as high 
as the surface of the water in the vessel. 

Hydraulic Machines. —The objects of hydraulic machinery 
are chiefly those of raising water from a lower to a higher level, 
or employing its impulse as a moving power; which effects may 
be produced by hydrostatic pressure or impact, on liquids and 
solids, either alone or in conjunction with atmospheric pressure. 
The construction of those machines, whose operation depends on 
the latter cause, must be referred to Pneumatics; but there are 
other machines which may be properly noticed under this head, 
as their modes of action admit of satisfactory explanation on the 
principles of hydrostatic science. These are of three kinds: 
machines for raising water by mechanical means only ; those 
which act by the weight, pressure, or impact of water, on solids; 
and those in which the effect is produced by the centrifugal force 
or intermitting action of flowing water. 

Of the first kind, is the common Draw Well, from which the 
water is lifted by means of a bucket and windlass ; but this raises 
a comparatively small quantity of water. The Chain Pump is a 
much more efficient engine, though very similar in its mode of 
action to the preceding. The Persian Wheel, which is used to 
raise water in Persia, and other eastern countries, consists of a 
large wheel, to the nave of which are suspended a number of 
buckets, in such a manner that in the revolutions of the wheel 
they successively dip into a pond or stream of water, over which 
the wheel moves, and the buckets thus filled ascend with their 


\ 


l 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


463 


load til] each in turn reaches the summit of the circuit. The 
Screw of Archimedes derives its designation from a prevalent 
opinion, that it was the invention of the Syracusan sage. It con¬ 
sists of a flexible tube like a hollow corkscrew, wound round a 
solid cylinder, which may be made to revolve by turning a winch, 
or by attached wheel-work. 

To the second class, belong all the different modifications of 
water-wheels respectively termed Undershot Wheels, Overshot 
Wheels, and Breast Wheels. 

The Undershot Wheel consists of a wheel on the periphery of 
which are fixed a number of flat boards at equal distances, and set 
at right angles to the plane of the wheel. They are called float- 
boards ; and the wheel being so placed as for its lowest point to 
be immersed in flowing water, it is set in motion by the impact of 
the water on the boards, as they successively dip into it. The 
Overshot Wheel differs from the foregoing, in the manner in 
which it is acted on by water, receiving its impulse not from the 
impact alone, but also from the weight of water. This kind of 
wheel can only be used where a considerable fall of water can be 
obtained. On its periphery are fixed a number of cavities called 
buckets, being closed on both sides, but having openings, so that 
the water conducted by a level trough of the same breadth with 
the wheel, may fill each bucket in succession, as it reaches that 
point in the circuit of the wheel at which the weight of the water 
can begin to act on its circumference. 

Among the hydraulic machines belonging to the third class, 
which derive their power from the centrifugal force of flowing 
water, may be included the Hydraulic Ram. It operates chiefly 
from the momentum of a current of vrater, suddenly stopped in 
its course, and made to act in another direction; and as it pro¬ 
duces a kind of intermitting motion, owing to the alternate retreat 
and access of the stream, accompanied with a noise arising from 
the shock, its action has been compared to the butting of rams: 
and hence the name of the machine. This machine, which has 
undergone many improvements, may be applied to work machinery 
for various purposes. 

Section IV. —Pneumat^s. 

Pneumatics explains and illustrates the phenomena which arise 
from the weight, pressure, or motion of atmospheric or common air, 
or other fluids possessing the same general properties. There arc 
two kinds of aeriform bodies; namely, those which are always in 
the gaseous state under common circumstances of temperature 


464 


VOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


and pressure, thence named permanent gases or airs ; and those 
which become gases chiefly at high temperatures, and which there¬ 
fore may be styled non-permanent gases or vapours. It will 
therefore be conducive to perspicuity to notice the properties of 
the permanent gases only, such as atmospheric air, under the head 
Pneumatics, and the non-permanent gases, especially steam or the 
vapour of water, under Pyronomics, or the doctrine of Heat. 

Common air is an invisible or perfectly transparent fluid, sur¬ 
rounding the earth, and extending a considerable height above it. 
The air, with the clouds and vapours that float in it, is called the 
atmosphere. All bodies on the surface of the earth, sustain a 
pressure from the superincumbent atmosphere equal to the weight 
of a column of water, about thirty-two feet in height, with a base 
corresponding in extent to that of the body or bodies pressing 
upon. This pressure may be estimated at about fourteen or fifteen 
pounds on every square inch of surface, being the weight of a 
column of mercury thirty inches high, and one inch square at the 
base. 

Common, or atmospheric air, was long supposed to be a simple 
elementary body, and it was imagined that all elastic fluids were 
essentially the same. It is now known that atmospheric air is a 
compound, consisting almost entirely of two different species of 
air or gas; one of which, called oxygen gas, and sometimes vital 
air, is necessary to the support of animal life; and the other, 
named nitrogen or azotic gas, when inspired alone, is injurious 
to animals. They are usually in about the following proportions:— 


Oxygen.21.5 

Azote.77 0 

Aqueous vapours.1.5 


100.0 


Atmospheric, or common air, is 800 times lighter than water, 
and like other fluids, the whole atmosphere presses on all sides 
whatever is immersed in it, and in proportion to the depths. It 
has an elastic or expansive nature, the force of its elasticity being 
equal to its weight; this elasticity operates in all directions, and 
is as powerful in small as large bulks. 

This property of the air is most convincingly demonstrated by 
the operation of the machine called an air-pump. By adapting 
two stop-cocks to a common syringe, and forming by means of 
them a communication with a vessel of a convenient shape and 
dimensions, a rude and imperfect kind of air-pump might be con¬ 
trived, by means of which air included in the vessel might be 
considerably rarified or condensed. An air-pump, indeed, essen> 







NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 



tially consists of two exhausting syringes, so arranged that they 
can be worked alternately. A multitude of interesting experi¬ 
ments, serving to demonstrate the various properties of air, may be 
satisfactorily performed by means of this machine. 

Plate Nat. Phil. fig. 3, represents one of the most convenient 
air-pumps. A A are two barrels, each having a piston with a valve 
opening upwards. The pistons are worked up and down alternately 
by the winch b. On the wooden frame de are two plates, ground 
perfectly fiat, and also a tube communicating with the two cylinders, 
the cock e, and opening in the centre of the plates at a. The 
smaller plate is for the gauge; k is the glass receiver (whence the 
air is to be exhausted) made to fit particularly close on the plate, 
with a wet piece of leather laid between them. Having shut the 
cock #, the pistons are worked, and draw the air from the glass 
receiver through the pipe; when the piston is forced down, the 
air rises through the valve upwards, but it is prevented returning. 
The air being gradually exhausted, the receiver becomes immovably 
fixed by the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere. On opening 
the cock *, the air rushes audibly and violently into the receiver. 

By experiments with this instrument the following important 
properties of air are demonstrated. 

1. The air has weight. Exhaust the air from the glass receiver; 
it will be held down by the pressure of the external air. Cover the 
orifice of an open receiver with a piece of bladder; on exhausting 
the receiver, the bladder will burst with a loud explosion. 

2. Air presses equally in all directions. Fill a glass vessel with 
water, and cover it with a piece of paper; on inverting the glass, the 
water is kept from falling by the upward pressure of the air. 

3. The air is elastic, or capable of compression and expansion. 
A blown bladder, pressed with the hand, resumes the form it had 
before the pressure. 

4. The elastic spring of the air is equivalent to the compressing 
forces. Exhaust an open tube, whose lower part is inserted in 
a vessel containing mercury, and the air within the vessel 
being prevented from escaping, will, by its elasticity, force the 
mercury up the tube almost the height it would be raised by at¬ 
mospheric pressure. 

5. The elasticity of air is increased by heat. To the bottom 
of a hollow glass ball affix an open bended tube. Fill the lower 
part of the tube and part of the ball with mercury: the external 
surface is pressed by the weight of the atmosphere equally, as the 
internal surface is pressed by the spring of the air in the ball. 
Place the ball in boiling water, and the increased elasticity of the 
included air will raise the mercury in the tube. 

3 o 


4G6 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION, 


6. The pressure of the atmosphere varies at different altitudes. 
On going to the top of a high mountain, where the weight of 
the air is diminished, the boiling point of water is somewhat 
less than 207. 

Having briefly described the air-pump, with the result of some 
of the most important experiments, we proceed to notice other 
pneumatic instruments. 

The Syringe is a tube having a small orifice at one end ; at the 
other is inserted a solid piston or cylinder, so exactly fitted that 
no air can pass, with a handle fixed to the piston. If that end 
which has the smaller orifice be put in water, and the piston be 
drawn back, the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the 
water will force it up into the tube; whence it may be forcibly 
expelled by pushing down the piston. 

The Air-Gun, like the common gun or musket, consists partly 
of a long metal tube adapted to receive a ball, but the breech end 
of the tube or barrel has an opening to admit condensed air 
behind the ball, which, acting by its elastic force, propels it with 
a velocity proportioned to. the degree of condensation of the air. 
Some of them are furnished with a syringe for compressing the 
air, included within the butt of the gun, and there is an exterior 
tube surrounding the barrel, so that the air is forced into the space 
between the tubes; and the ball having been introduced into the 
barrel, which it fits closely, a valve is opened by pressing on a 
knob or trigger, and the air rushes, from the cavity formed by the 
outer tube, into the chamber behind the ball, which it expels from 
the barrel, continuing to act upon it by its expansive force till the 
ball has passed from the mouth of the air-gun. 

The Barometer is a most useful instrument to determine the 
variations of the weather; the invention of which appears to be 
justly attributed to Torricelli, professor of mathematics at Florence, 
in the earlier part of the seventeenth century. The barometer 
now in general use as a weather-glass is nothing more than a tube 
of proper length filled with mercury, and either dipped at the open 
end in a small cup of the same fluid, or else having the open end 
curved upwards, so that the mercury may be exposed to the pres¬ 
sure of the atmosphere; a scale of inches also is adapted to the 
upper part of the tube, extending from 27 to 32 inches, that it 
may appear by inspection at what height the mercury stands under 
the pressure of the atmosphere at any particular time. 

The common Pump, sometimes called the suction pump, 
(fig. 4), is nothing more than a syringe so contrived that the water 
drawn into it passes through the piston by means of a valve, and 
is discharged above it, instead of being again forced out below. 



NATU UAL Till LOSOPH T. 


467 


ft consists of two hollow cylindric pipes A and E, the latter of 
which usually terminates below in a perforated ball, through which 
the water in the well enters freely into the suction-pipe; and at 
its other extremity is a valve D, opening upwards, and affording a 
communication, when open with the upper pipe A. In this pipe, 
constituting the barrel, or body of the pump, the piston B moves 
air-tight vertically, and by its valve C opening upwards, it permits 
the water to pass above it and be discharged at the spout. Now 
suppose the piston to be at the bottom of the barrel in contact 
with the valve D, on lifting the former by depressing the lever 
handle of the pump, connected with the piston rod at F, the valve 
C will be closed by the pressure of the air above, and a vacuum 
being thus formed in the barrel, the same pressure on the surface 
of the water in the well will drive it up the suction-pipe, and 
raising the valve D, the water will enter the exhausted barrel, 
whence, by depressing the piston, the valve D will shut, and that 
at B rising, the water will pass upwards and be discharged through 
the spout. This pump cannot raise water beyond the extent of 
action of atmospheric pressure, the utmost limit of which will 
be about 33 feet. 

The Lifting-pump, fig. 5, acts in much the same manner as the 
preceding, but the machinery is reversed. It consists of a hollow 
cylinder or barrel AB, in which is fixed the valve Gr, a little 
below r the level of the water in the well or reservoir. A piston F, 
with a valve opening upwards, fits into the lower part of the 
barrel, in which it is moved vertically by means of the frame 
B C D E, connected with the piston-rod I. Now when the piston 
is at the bottom of the barrel, the pressure of the atmosphere on 
the surface of the water in the well will open the piston valve, and 
the water will rise to the same height within the barrel as without; 
and on lifting the piston, its valve F will close, and the water 
above it will be driven by the opening of the valve G into the 
upper part of the barrel: then the piston being depressed again, the 
valve F will open to admit more water into the lower part of the 
barrel, while that above will be prevented from returning by the 
dosing of the valve G: and thus by continued working of the 
piston, the water will rise in the barrel till it escapes by the spout. 

The Forcing-pump combines, in a great degree, the properties of 
those alreadv described. It is composed of a hollow cylinder, the 
lower end of which dips into the water in the well: just above the 
valve, in the upper part of this cylinder, a lateral pipe branches 
off, having at a short distance from its origin another valve, both 
valves opening upwards ; and in the upper part of the cylinder or 
barrel is a solid piston or plunger, moving air-tight vertically. 


463 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


Now if the piston be depressed to the lower valve, and then raised,, 
that will open, while the valve in the lateral pipe remains closed, 
and the pressure of the atmosphere on the water in the well will 
cause it to rise a little and expel a part of the air through the first 
valve ; the piston then being lowered, that valve will close, and 
the air above it be expelled through the other valve ; thus every 
elevation of the piston will make the water rise higher in the cylin¬ 
der till it has expelled all the air, and it will consequently, at the 
next lifting of the piston, pass above the first valve, and the piston 
being again lowered, as the liquid cannot descend, the valve being 
closed, it will be forced into the lateral pipe, through its valve ; 
and as it is prevented from returning again by that valve, it will con¬ 
tinue to ascend with every down-stroke of the piston, and may 
thus be raised to any height required. 

The Fire-engine is a modification of the forcing-pump, con¬ 
sisting essentially of two working barrels like an air-pump, but 
fitted with solid pistons, and valves corresponding with those of 
the forcing-pump ; and thus water is drawn from any reservoir or 
source of supply, and propelled into a strong air-chamber, from 
the upper part of which passes a tube, having its interior extremity 
dipped under the surface of the water, which is thus driven through 
it by the pressure of the condensed air. 

The modern art of Aerostation, or Aeronautics, depends on the 
application of the principle of specific gravity to the action of 
gases, &c. on solid bodies, and the consequent motion of the latter 
through the atmosphere. The invention of the air-balloon took 
place in France, in 1783. 

The Air-balloon consists of a light bag of thin silk, fig. 6, of 
a globular or elliptic shape, and rendered air-tight by a coating of 
varnish, made by dissolving gum elastic in spirits of turpentine. 
When thus prepared it must be distended with some elastic fluid, 
lighter than common air; and it will thence acquire an ascending 
power equal to the difference between its weight, including the 
attached car and its contents, and that of the bulk of atmospheric 
air which the apparatus displaces. Aeronauts in general were 
accustomed to use inflammable air procured by dissolving pieces 
of iron or zinc in sulphuric acid diluted with water; a tedious, 
troublesome, and inconvenient operation ; but latterly they have 
availed themselves of the convenience of procuring gas from the 
coal-gas companies, which has been found to be sufficiently 
adapted for the purpose. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


46.9 


Section V.— Acoustics. 

The science of Acoustics treats of the nature and properties of 
sound. The idea of sound is excited in the mind when the motions 
which take place in any of the bodies around us, are communicated 
to the auditory nerve, and thence to the brain. This effect is pro¬ 
duced by means of the organization of the ear, the tremulous mo¬ 
tions or vibrations of the air being propagated to the tympanum, 
or drum, a thin membrane which closes the aperture of the ear. 

Air is the usual medium of sound, but it is not essential to the 
formation or the propagation of sonorous vibrations. Some sub¬ 
stances however, either solid, liquid, or aerial, must form a con¬ 
tinuous connexion between the sounding body and the ear; for 
sound cannot be conveyed through a vacuum. The velocity with 
which sound is propagated must depend on the nature of the 
medium by which it is conveyed. Atmospheric air being the 
general medium of sound, the investigation of its conducting 
power has at different periods occupied the attention of men of 
science. Dr. Halley, and Flamsteed, were led to the conclusion, 
that the common velocity of sound was 1142 feet in a second ; and 
this deduction was confirmed by the varied and extensive re¬ 
searches of Dr. Derham, in consequence of wdiich it has been 
generally adopted by subsequent writers on this branch of science. 
This statement, however, is now considered as requiring some 
correction on account of the influence of temperature; and from 
a comparison of the experiments of Derham, made in the day¬ 
time, with some more recent observations, it appears that the 
actual velocity of sound, at the zero of temperature of the centigrade 
thermometer (32° of Fahrenheit) is about 1130 feet in a second. 
By adopting either of the numbers last stated, sufficiently 
correct calculations may be made of the distances of objects, as 
inferred from the relative velocities of light and sound ; the former 
from its extreme celerity being regarded as appearing instanta¬ 
neously on its production, at distances not exceeding a few miles. 

The conveyance of articulate sounds, by means of tubes through 
considerable distances from one part of a building to another, is 
now commonly practised in London and other places. The facility 
with which the voice thus circulates through tubes was probably 
known to the ancients, and certainly to the cultivators of philosophy 
in the middle ages. Pope Sylvester II., who lived in the tenth 
century, was regarded as a magician, because among the wonderful 
machines he constructed was a speaking head of brass. Albertus 
Magnus, and our countryman Roger Bacon, in the thirteenth 
century, incurred similar odium, in consequence of their having 
formed speaking figures. Of this nature was an exhibition which 


470 


YOUNG man's COMPANION 


took place at Paris several years since, and afterwards in London, 
styled the Invisible Girl, since the apparatus was so contrived that 
the voice of a female at a distance was heard as if it originated 
from a hollow globe not more than a foot in diameter, suspended 
freely from wooden frame-work, by slender ribbons. 1 his is now 
exhibited at the Adelaide Gallery, West Strand. 

In order to favour the deception as much as possible, the place 
chosen is a large and lofty room, where there seemed no situation 
for placing acoustic tubes or reflectors. In the centre of the 
room is a wooden frame about five feet high, inclosing a space five or 
six feet square. Fig. 7 is a perspective view of the apparatus. 
A AAA represent the four upright posts, which stand on glass 
feet, and which are united by a cross rail near the top B B. The 
frame, thus constructed, stands upon the floor, and from the top 
of each of the four pillars proceeds a strong bended brass rod aaaa, 
so that they all meet together at the top c, where they are secured 
by an ornament. From the top of these four rods is suspended a 
hollow copper ball M, about a foot in diameter, by means of slight 
ribbons, so as to cut off all possible communication with the frame. 
Hound this ball are placed four copper tubes, in the shape of 
trumpets, T T, at right angles with each other, the large end 
opening externally. Such is the apparent construction of the 
apparatus.; and it is pretended that there resides within the ball 
an invisible lady, capable of giving answers to any questions that 
are put to her. When a question is proposed, it is uttered at the 
mouth of one of the trumpets, and an answer'immediately pro¬ 
ceeds from all the trumpets, so distinct as to be heard by an ear 
applied to any of them. 

Fig. 8, which represents a section of the apparatus, will explain 
the method by which the deception is effected. The real speaker 
is a female, concealed in an adjoining apartment, and the means 
by which the voice is made to issue from the globe in the manner 
stated, is at once very simple and ingenious. Two of the trum¬ 
pet’s mouths, T T, are exactly opposite apertures leading to 
tubes in two of the cross-rails, which, meeting at the angle A, 
open into another tube descending through the pillar, and which 
is continued under the floor into an adjoining apartment, where a 
person sitting mayhear what is whispered into either of the trumpets, 
and return an appropriate answer by the same channel. A small 
hole closed with glass is left through the side wall of the room, so 
that the confederate may have an opportunity of observing and com¬ 
menting on any circumstance which may take place in the room, 
and returning an appropriate answer to the questions proposed. 




NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


471 


Section VI.— Pyronomics. 

This branch of natural philosophy, which has recently attained 
the rank and importance of a distinct science, is appropriated to 
the description of the properties and operations of heat. This 
term, which has been adopted by Sir John Leslie (from the Greek 
Ylvp, fire, and No/xoe, a law,) signifies the laws of heat. 

The nature and cause of heat have formed a subject of contro¬ 
versy among modern philosophers. Some conceive it to be a 
peculiar subtile fluid, of which the particles repel each other, but 
have a strong attraction for the particles of other matter. Others 
consider it as amotion or vibration of the particles of matter, sup¬ 
posed to differ in velocity in different cases, thus producing the 
different degrees of temperature. If, according to the former 
hypothesis, heat be considered a fluid, it is certainly destitute 
of weight, for it has been ascertained from experiment .that the 
addition of heat to any substance produces no sensible alteration 
in its gravitative force. It must also be considered as an inco- 
ercible fluid, for, though it passes through some bodies with more 
difficulty than through others, there is no body or kind of matter 
which can completely arrest its progress. The terms caloric (from the 
Latin calor , heat,) and matterof heat,have been adopted todesignate 
the hypothetical cause of those phenomena which are referred to 
the science of Pyronomics ; and without admitting the separate 
existence of such an agent as the caloric of the French chemists, 
the term may sometimes be advantageously employed to denote 
the amount of effect produced by relative changes of temperature 
in the same or in different bodies. 

The grand fountain of heat, or the principal cause of elevation 
of temperature, is the sun ; but of the manner in which its effect 
is produced on bodies exposed to its rays, different opinions have 
been entertained. The popular notion concerning the nature and 
constitution of the sun, as the source of light and heat, is that of 
an inextinguishable mass of matter in a state of intense con- 
flagration. Sir William Herschel, however, entertained a very 
different opinion relative to the nature of the solar orb, which, from 
numerous telescopic observations, lie was led to imagine to be an 
opaque globular mass, encompassed by an atmosphere consisting 
of transparent elastic fluids, from the decomposition of which 
heat and light were continually proceeding. 

By the observations of aeronauts, as well as of those who have 
ascended high mountains, it appears that there is a gradual de¬ 
cease of heat in ascending above the surface of the earth. The 
icst observations on this relative diminution of heat at increasing 


472 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


heights, are those of Humboldt, derived from experiments made 
in the equatorial regions of America. The general result of his 
researches gives 121 toises of ascent for a diminution of 1° of 
Reaumur's thermometer. 

Heat is propagated with more or less rapidity through all 
bodies; air is the worst conductor, and consequently mitigates 
the severity of cold climates by preserving the heat imparted to 
the earth by the sun. On the contrary, dense bodies, especially 
metals, possess the power of conduction in the greatest degree, but 
the transmission requires time. 

Among the mechanical powers for producing, or rather of 
exciting heat, friction is perhaps the most usual and effective. In 
sawing wood, or boring metal, it may be observed that the sub¬ 
stances thus exposed to friction soon become sensibly warm. The 
wheels of carriages sometimes take fire from friction against the 
axles when in rapid motion. 

Compression is another mechanical means of producing heat, 
either in solids, liquids, or gases. An iron bar may be hammered 
until it is red-hot; and water strongly compressed gives out heat, 
as appears from the experiments of Dessaignes, as well as from the 
interesting researches of Mr. Perkins. The effect of heat in ex¬ 
panding solid bodies, and especially metals, has been advantage¬ 
ously applied to practical purposes. Thus coopers, in fixing iron 
hoops on a cask, make them previously very hot, and being adapted 
in that state to the periphery of the cask, their contraction in 
cooling binds together the staves of the cask. 

As a dilating or expanding power, the influence of heat as 
applied to liquids is greater than in the case of solids. But the 
degree of action which it exerts is different with respect to 
different liquids; so that alcohol is more readily expanded than 
fat, oils, or ether; the latter are more expansible than water, and 
water more so than mercury. 

This expansive power of heat on various material substances 

affords a convenient method of estimating the relative quantity of 

heat which will produce any given effect. Upon this principle 

depends the utility of those philosophical instruments called 

Thermometers and Pvrometers. 

%> 

The Thermometer. —The invention of this useful instrument 
appears to have occurred in the early part of the seventeenth 
century; and the mode of measuring heat first attempted was by 
observing the expansion of air confined in a glass tube. But the 
original thermometer was a very imperfect instrument. Several 
men of science, therefore, employed themselves in contriving by 
various methods to augment the utility and accuracy of this 






N A T IT R AT- PJI11 - OS O P H Y . 


478 


instrument. In 1780 Reaumur, in France, invented a thermometer 
“filled with tinged spirit of wine, with a scale divided into 80° 
between the freezing and the boiling points of water. 

The first employment of mercury, as the most suitable fluid for 
the thermometer, is usually attributed to Fahrenheit, a native of 
Dantzic, and his name has been permanently connected with that 
form of the thermometer now generally used in England, Holland, 
and the United States of North America. Fahrenheit’s thermometer 
consists of a slender cylindrical tube, and a small longitudinal 
bulb. To the side of the tube is 'annexed a scale which Fahren¬ 
heit divided into 600 parts, beginning with that of the severe 
cold which he had observed in Iceland, in 1709, or that produced 
by surrounding the bulb of the thermometer with a mixture of 
snow or beaten ice, and sal ammoniac, or sea-salt. But the present 
method of making the scale of those thermometers which bear the 
name of Fahrenheit, and which is the sort in most common use, 
is first to immerse the bulb of the thermometer in ice, or snow 
just beginning to thaw, and mark the place where the mercury 
stands with a thirty-two ; then immerse it in boiling water, and 
again mark the place wliere the mercury stands in the tube, which 
mark with the number 212, exceeding the former by 180; dividing, 
therefore, the intermediate space into 180 equal parts, will give 
the scale of the thermometer, and which may afterwards be con¬ 
tinued upwards and downwards at pleasure. Other thermometers 
of a similar construction have been accommodated to common use, 
having but a portion of the above scale. 

The Pyrometer. —As there is no known liquid that con¬ 
tinues unevaporated at a higher temperature than mercury, the 
relative effect of very high degrees of heat is usually estimated 
by the alteration of bulk that takes place in solid bodies. Heat 
generally expands substances of all kinds; but Mr. Wedgwood 
observed that fine porcelain clay becomes contracted by exposure 
to great heat; and he found, on investigation, that pieces of pure 
clay carefully dried, and then exposed to a red heat in a furnace, 
exhibited a sensible degree of contraction, which remained when 
they again became cool; and as it further appeared that the con¬ 
traction proceeded with the augmentation of heat, till vitrifaction 
took place in the clay, he conceived the idea of forming a pyro¬ 
meter, or measurer of heat, consisting of a number of test-pieces 
of prepared clay, in the shape of small flattened cylinders, and a 
scale, composed of brass rods, J-inch square, and two feet long, 
fixed to a brass plate obliquely inclining inwards, so as to be some¬ 
what nearer together at one end than at the other, and marked 
with a scale of equal parts-, commencing at the wider extremitv. 

3 i- 



474 


rOUNG man's companion. 


Each degree of Wbdgwood’s scale is equivalent to 130 degrees 
of that of Fahrenheit"; and the former commences at 1077-5° of 
the latter scale. 

Other pyrometers have been invented by various experimen¬ 
talists, exhibiting different methods of measuring, with more or less 
accuracy, the relative expansion of bars or wires of iron, or of 
some other metal. 

Steam is a term generally applied to the cloudy appearance which 
arises from the condensation of the aqueous vapour; but when 
used in connexion with the arts and manufactures, in which the 
vapour of water is employed, the term steam always implies water 
in its elastic form, at or above the temperature of 212°. 

Steam is at present applied to many economical purposes, as 
well as in various manufactures, independent of its important 
office in the steam-engine. In dyeing, bleaching, and many other 
similar departments, it is used to communicate heat to water, 
instead of having separate fire-places and boilers. It has been 
also employed to great advantage for culinary purposes. It is 
made to communicate with vessels, in the form of boilers, as a sub¬ 
stitute for having fires under them, which is a great advantage, 
both in the economy of fuel, and in avoiding, at the same time, 
the nuisance of ashes and smoke. 

The Steam-Engine. —But the most important purpose to 
which steam has been applied yet remains to be described. The 
general principle of the steam-engine, is the force derived from 
the property of water to expand itself, in an amazing degree, 
when heated above the temperature at which it becomes changed 
into steam, or vapour, which being an exceedingly elastic fluid, 
it can be retained within the close vessel or boiler to which the 
heat is applied, even when it has an expansive force sufficient to 
make it fill, if left at liberty, twenty or thirty times the space in 
which it is confined. In this state the steam will exert a pro¬ 
portionate force or pressure to burst open the sides of the vessel 
in which it is retained; which force may be applied either to 
expel or raise up water from any vessel into which the confined 
steam is admitted, or to give motion to a movable piston, which 
is so accurately fitted to the interior capacity of such a vessel, as 
not to permit the escape of the steam between them. The 
invention of the steam-engine is ascribed to an ingenious man, 
named Newcomen, who was a locksmith in the West of England. 
It was afterwards improved by Watt and others, and engines of 
various constructions are now made. 

A reference to fig. 9, will enable the reader to form some idea 
of the principal parts of a steam-engine, and of its mode of 


natural philosophy. 


/ 


475 


action. AB denotes the principal cylinder; P its piston, acting 
l) y i ts rod Y on the extremity of the beam GH, the other 
extremity of which is connected with the fly-wheel: CC, a tube, 
or passage, by which steam, formed in the boiler, is conveyed to 
the conducting pipes TU, to be admitted on either side of the 
piston P alternately; O, the fly-wheel, which, by the rods RS 
moving eccentrically, acts upon the rectangular lever Y, which by 
means of the valve Z, regulates the admission of steam by the 
conducting pipes ; M, the conductor; X, a tube by which the 
steam passes from the cylinder into the condenser; N, a tube to 
convey the water condensation to the pump L ; F, the piston of 
the pump L, worked by its rod E attached to the beam GH ; 
K, the piston rod of a pump to inject water into the condenser, 
b rom this description, the mode of action of the engine may be 
readily understood. Suppose the piston P to be at the top of 
the cylinder AB, the lower part being filled with steam, then by 
means of the lever Y, the steam valve Z will be drawn down so 
as to admit steam by the upper branch of the conducting pipe U 
into the cylinder above the piston ; and at the same time a 
passage will be opened to let the steam below escape into the 
condenser. Thus the piston will be driven to the bottom of the 
cylinder, when the steam valve again opens to admit steam by the 
lower branch of the conducting pipe T into the cylinder below the 
piston, while the other passage also opens to permit the steam 
above the piston to escape through the tube X into the condenser. 
Thus the manner in which the piston alternately rises and falls is 
shown, and by the connexion of its rod with the lever GH, it 
works the pumps, and turns the fly-wheel, whence the moving 
power may be propagated through trains of machinery for any 
purpose required. The fly-wheel may be moved in the manner 
represented in the figure, by a crank connected with a rod de¬ 
scending from the arm H of the great lever, or the toothed 
wheels called the sun and planet wheel. Steam-engines are now 
extensively employed in manufactures, in navigation, and in 
railroads. 


Section VII.—Optics. 

Optics explain the nature and laws of vision, and include the 
generally received theory of light and colours. Optics may be 
advantageously introduced under the following divisions : 1. The 
general properties of light; 2. The laws of refraction, usually 
termed dioptrics, including the theory of vision; 8. Catoptrics, 
or the laws of reflection; 4. Chromatics, or the phenomena of 


476 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


colours; and 5. Certain modifications of reflected or refracted 
light, resulting from its polarization. 

I. General Properties of Light. —Light, considered as 
the cause of vision, or the medium by which objects become 
perceptible to the sight, exhibiting a variety of tints to the eye, 
has generally been supposed by Newton, and most of his imme, 
diate successors, to be a material substance emitted by all sell- 
luminous bodies in extremely minute particles, moving in straight 
lines, with prodigious velocity, which, by impinging upon the optic 
nerves, produce the sensation of light. This subtile fluid, or ether, 
was considered as perpetually streaming in all directions from the 
sun and fixed stars, travelling with a velocity 900,000 times be¬ 
yond that of sound through the air, and yet consisting of particles 
so extremely minute as to pass through the densest substances, 
without at all altering their structure, or interfering during their 
progress in the slightest degree with each other. 

Many of the observed phenomena have been successfully ex¬ 
plained by this theory ; but there are others which it is totally 
inadequate to account for. Descartes, as early as the year 1630, 
had advanced a different hypothesis, which was adopted and im¬ 
proved by Huygens and others, but which was not generally 
admitted as correct till about the beginning of the present 
century, when Dr. Thomas Young, in the Bakerian Lecture, 
read before the Royal Society in 1801, entered into ail elaborate 
disquisition concerning the theory of light and colours ; and de¬ 
duced from the principles laid down by Newton himself the three 
following hypotheses: 1. That a luminiferous ether, rare and elastic 
in a high degree, prevades the whole universe ; 2. That undula¬ 
tions are excited in this ether whenever a body becomes luminous ; 
3. That the sensation of different colours depends dn the fre¬ 
quency of vibrations excited by light in the retina. To these he 
added a fourth hypothesis, assuming that all material bodies have 
an attraction for the ethereal medium, by means of which it is 
accumulated within their substance, and for a small distance 
around them, in a state of greater density, but not of greater 
elasticity. Subsequent discoveries have tended to confirm the 
theory of undulation, which has been embraced by the most dis¬ 
tinguished modern philosophers, as Fresnel, Ar-agnel, Sir John 
Herschel, Sir David Brewster, and others, who by their own dis¬ 
coveries have greatly contributed to extend the boundaries of 
science. 

The following are the principal terms used in this branch of 
optics in relation to light, which before we proceed it will be need¬ 
ful to explain. 
































































































NAT U UAL 


Fill 



s» 





TLATF, 11. 



Fixj. IS ■ 







LOTTO GB , GK OUGIi mTTO 





















































































































































NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


477 


Any body which affords a ready passage for light, is called a 
transparent or diaphanous medium, as air, glass, water, &c. Bodies 
which do not allow the passage of light through them, are called 
opaque, as stone, wood, &c. 

A ray, or pencil of light, is any exceedingly small portion of 
light from a luminous body. A beam of light is a body of pa¬ 
rallel rays ; a pencil of rays is a body of diverging or converging 
rays. 

Rays continually separating as they proceed from a point, are 
called diverging; rays which tend to a common point are called 
converging; when the lines in which they move are parallel, they 
are called parallel rays. 

The point whence diverging rays proceed, is called the radiant; 
that to which converging rays tend, is called the focus. A ray of 
light bent from a straight course in the same medium, is inflected ; 
when turned back on the surface of a body it is reflected ; and 
when turned out of its course, in passing into another medium, it 
is refracted. 

The Angle of Incidence is that between the line of the incident 
ray (or that which falls on any plane or curved surface) and a line 
perpendicular to the surface on which the ray strikes, raised from 
the point of incidence. Thus, the angle b c /, Plate II. fig. 10, 
is the angle of incidence. 

The Angle of Refraction, is that between the line of the 
refracted ray, and a line perpendicular to the refracting surface, at 
the point in which the ray passes through. Thus the angle i c /r, 
fig. 10, is the angle of refraction. 

The Angle of Reflection is that contained between the per¬ 
pendicular and the reflected ray, as F C E, fig. 10. These angles 
of incidence and reflection are always equal. 

II. T he Laws of Refraction. — When rays of light pass 
obliquely from one transparent medium to another, either more or 
less dense, they are bent out of their former course. The effect 
thus produced is termed Refraction ; and the laws by which the 
phenomena are regulated constitute the science, or branch of 
science, called Dioptrics. The effect just described may be 
exemplified by the following simple experiments :—Put a small 
stick in a bowl of water, and the end appears bent, because of the 
refraction. Mark in the bowl, and place a sixpence where the 
shadow of the side appears from a candle; pour in water, and the 
shadow appears to change situation. Place the bowl with a 
shilling in it where the eye (stationary) can just see the edge, 
pour in water, and the light will be so refracted that the whole of 
the shilling will be distinctly seen. Put a shilling in a wine- 


478 


YOUNG man's companion. 

glass; pour on water, and tlie refracted rays will present another 
image higher than that of the shilling, and both reach the eye. 
Rays of light are always in a denser medium, refracted towards a 
perpendicular to the surface, which refraction is in proportion to 
the obliquity of the rays of light falling on the refracting surface. 

Availing themselves of the principle of refraction, philosophers 
have contrived surfaces in which the perpendiculars constantly 
vary, and produce new and important effects. This they do by 
convex and concave glass lenses, that collect or disperse the 
passing rays of light. 

The following are various kinds of lenses, named according to 
their forms :—A plano-convex lens has one side flat, and the 
other convex, A, fig. 11; a plano-concave is flat on one side, and 
concave on the other, B, fig. 11 ; a double convex is convex on 
both sides, C, fig. 11; a double concave is concave on both sides, 
D, fig. 11; a meniscus is convex on one side, and concave on the 
other, E, fig. 11. The axis of a lens is a line through the centre; 
thus FG is the axis to the five lenses. 

When parallel rays fall upon a plano-convex lens, they are so 
refracted as to unite in a point behind, called the principal focus, 
or focus of parallel rays. The distance from the middle of the 
glass to the focus, is called the focal distance ; which in a plano¬ 
convex lens, equals the diameter of the sphere of which the lens 
is a portion. The focal distance of a double convex lens equals 
the radius of a sphere of which the lens is a portion, fig. 12. 

All the parallel solar rays which pass through a convex glass, as 
DE, or cd , fig. 12, are collected in its focus / or C, and the 
force of their heat is to the common heat of the sun, as the area 
of the glass is to the area of the focus. If a lens four inches in 
diameter, collect the sun's rays into a focus distant twelve inches, 
the image will not exceed one-tenth of an inch; the surface of it 
is 1600 times less than that of the lens; therefore the heat will 
be 1600 times greater in the focus than at the lens. Hence are 
constructed common burning glasses. 

The following are the principal phenomena of rays in connexion 
with various lenses:—Through a convex surface, passing out of a 
rarer into a denser medium, parallel rays become converging. 
Diverging rays are made to diverge less, to become parallel, or to 
converge, according to the degree of divergency before refraction, 
or of the convexity of the surface. Converging rays, towards the 
centre of convexity, suffer no refraction. Converging rays to a 
point beyond the centre of convexity, are made more converging. 
Converging rays towards a point nearer the surface than the centre 
of convexity, are made less converging by refraction. The 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


479 


contrary occurs when the rays proceed out of a denstr into a 
rarer medium. 

When rays pass out of a rarer into a denser medium, through 
a concave surface, if parallel before refraction, they are made to 
diverge. If they are divergent, they diverge more, suffer no 
refraction, or diverge less, according as they proceed from some 
point beyond the centre, from the centre, or some point between the 
centre and the surface. If they are convergent, they are either 
made less convergent, parallel, or diverging, according to their 
degree of convergency before refraction. And the reverse, passing 
out of a denser into a rarer medium. 

Most of these propositions may be confirmed in a darkened room, 
by placing a lens, convex or concave, fixed in a frame moveable 
perpendicularly along a bar of wood, or table, at different dis¬ 
tances from a lighted candle placed perpendicularly on the same 
bar, and receiving the images upon white paper. Upon this bar, 
on one side of a line over which the convex lens is placed, let a 
line, perpendicular to the last, be divided into parts 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. 
equal to the distance of the focus of parallel rays; and on the 
other side, above the lens, place a line similarly divided, and let 
the first division farther from the lens than the focus, be subdivided 
into parts equal to J, J, &c. the distance of the focus of parallel 
rays : a candle placed over the division 2, will form a distinct 
image on paper held over the division J ; over 3, the image will 
be at -J, &c., whence it appears that the distances of the corre¬ 
sponding foci vary reciprocally. 

Organs of Vision. — There is some variety in the construction 
of the eye in different animals, according to the element in which 
they live, but the general principle is the same. The eyes are 
situated in the bony cavities named orbits, where they are sur¬ 
rounded by several parts, which are either intended to protect 
them from external injury, or to assist in their motion. 

The eye is of a globular form, and is composed of three coats, 
covering one another, and inclosing different substances, called 
humours. 

The three coats are the sclerotica, the choroides, and the 
retina. 

The three humours are the aqueous, the crystalline, and the 
vitreous 

Objects are seen by means of their images being painted on the 
retina of the eye. 

Though the images of objects are painted on the retina in an 
Yi verted state, yet they are seen erect. 

Dimness of sight generally attends old people, which may arise 



480 


yOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


either by the eyes growing flat, and not uniting the rays of 
the retina; or by the humours losing their transparency in some 
degree, which makes every object appear faint and indistinct. 

III. The Laws of Reflection.— When a ray of light falls 
upon any body, however transparent, the whole of it never passes 
through the body, but some part is always reflected from it ; 
and by this reflected light, bodies which have no light of their 
own, become visible to us. Of that part of the ray which 
enters, another part is also reflected from the second surface, 
or that which is farthest from the luminous body. When this 
part arrives again at the first surface, part of it is reflected 
from that surface, and thus it continues to be reflected 
between the two surfaces ; and to pass backwards and forwards 
within the substance of the medium, till some part is totally 
extinguished. Beside-s this inconsiderable quantity, which is lost 
in this manner, the second surface often reflects much more than 
the first; so that, in certain positions, scarcely any rays will pass 
through both sides of the medium. A very considerable quantity . 
is also unaccountably lost at each reflecting surface ; so that 
no body, however transparent, can transmit all the rays which fall 
upon it; neither, though it be ever so well fitted for reflection, 
will it reflect them at all. The reflection of light is not so easily 
explained as the refraction. This last property may be accounted 
for in a satisfactory manner, by the supposition of an attractive power 
diffused throughout the medium, and extending a very little way 
beyond it; but with regard to reflection, there seems to be no 
satisfactory hypothesis hitherto adopted. 

The fundamental law of the reflection of light is, that the 
angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence. 
This is found by experiment to be the case, and may also be 
demonstrated mathematically, from the laws of impulse in per¬ 
fectly elastic bodies. The axiom, therefore, holds good in every 
case of reflection, whether it be from plane or spherical surfaces; 
and hence the following propositions, relating to the reflection of 
light from plane and spherical surfaces, may be deduced :— 

1. Parallel rays reflected from a concave surface are made con¬ 
verging. Converging rays falling upon a concave surface are made 
to converge more. Diverging rays falling upon a concave surface, 
if they diverge from a focus of parallel rays, become parallel ; if 
from a point nearer the surface than that focus, they diverge less 
than before reflection ; if from a point between that focus and 
the centre, they converge, after reflection, to some point on the 
contrary side of, and farther from, the centre than the point of 
diverging; if from a point beyond the centre, they converge 




NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


48 i 

to a point on the contrary side, but nearer than the point of 
diverging: if from the centre, they will be reflected thither 
again. The above propositions may be verified by placing a 
concave mirror at proper distances from an open orifice, or 
a convex or a concave lens, through which a solar ray passes. 

Parallel rays reflected from a convex surface are made 
diverging. Diverging rays reflected from a convex surface arc 
made more diverging. Converging rays reflected from a convex 
surface, if they tend towards the focus of parallel rays become 
parallel. If to a point nearer the surface of that focus, they 
converge less than before reflected. If to a point between that 
focus and the centre, they diverge as from a point on the contrary 
side, farther than the point towards which they converge. If to 
a point beyond the centre, they diverge as from a point on the 
contrary side, nearer than the point towards which they first con¬ 
verged. And if towards the centre they proceed on reflection, as 
from the centre. The preceding propositions may be illustrated 
by receiving, upon a convex mirror, a solar ray passing through an 
open orifice, or a concave or a convex lens. 

Common plane mirrors are formed of glass, to the back of 
which is attached an amalgam, or mixture of tin and quicksilver, 
which, adhering to the surface of the glass, forms a smooth polished 
plane, capable of reflecting the rays of light which impinge on 
it more abundantly than almost any other kind of mirror. The 
effect of light reflected from a convex mirror is to produce a 
miniature picture of any object placed opposite to it; the images 
thus formed appearing to the eye of the observer in front, to be 
situated within or behind the mirror. Concave mirrors exhibit a 
variety of phenomena depending on the situation of the object 
with respect to the mirror and to the observer, some of which are 
highly curious and interesting. “ The concave mirror,” savs 
Sir David Brewster, “ is the staple instrument of the magician’s 
cabinet, and must always perform a principal part in all optical 
combinations.” 

IV. The Theory of Colours. —One of the- most striking 
and important properties of light is that of communicating colour 
to bodies. According to the popular idea, the variety of colours 
is owing to some inherent qualities in the substances on whose 
surfaces we perceive them ; and thus, in using the phrases, a red 
brick or a green wafer, an uninformed person would conceive the 
redness of the brick, or the green tint of the wafer, to be the 
peculiar properties of those bodies. But we find from experiment 
that., though colour partly depends on the texture of substances, 
and the nature of their surfaces, the essentially efficient cause of 

S Q 


4m 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


colour is light, since not only are bodies destitute of colour in the 
absence of light, but their colours may be altered by subjecting to 
certain modifications the light by which they are rendered visible. 
The influence of light in the production of colour is remarkably 
modified by refraction. Rays of light are differently refrangible, or 
refractible,that is,are more or less easily turned out of their course; 
and they are also differently reflexible, or more or less easily re¬ 
flected. Light is called homogeneous, when all the rays are equally 
refrangible: and heterogeneous, when some rays are more refrangible 
than others. The colours produced by homogeneous rays are called 
primary or simple; those of heterogeneous, secondary or mixed. 

It is on the principle of the different refrangibility of light, 
therefore, that the whole theory of colours may be said chiefly 
to rest. For the discovery of this fundamental property we are 
indebted to Sir Isaac Newton, as the result of the most laborious 
and patient investigation. 

The dissection of a rav of solar light into different colours, bv 
refraction, may be accurately displayed by admitting a ray through 
an aperture in a window shutter into a darkened chamber, and 
causing it to fall on a diaphanous prism, ABC, fig. 13. A 
ray, D, thus entering, and suffered to pass unobstructed, would 
form on a plane surface a circular disc of white light, E, but the 
prism being so placed that the ray may enter and quit it at equal 
angles, it will be refracted in such a manner as to form on a screen, 
M N, properly placed, an oblong image, called the solar spectrum, 
and divided horizontally into seven coloured spaces, or bands of 
unequal extent, succeeding each other in the order represented : 
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. These bands are 
not separated by distinct lines, so that it is difficult to determine 
where one ends and another commences, the several tints at their 
borders being blended, and each almost imperceptibly uniting 
with those next it; the whole spectrum exhibiting the seven 
principal colours, with intermediate shades or mixtures. Bands 
of colours more precisely terminated may, however, be obtained 
by receiving the ray on a lens, before it is allowed to fall on the 
prism; and the image thus formed will be more extended in 
length, and very narrow. Similar phenomena may be produced 
by means of other kinds of light as well as that of the sun ; and 
all transparent substances, in masses not terminated by parallel 
surfaces, have in some degree the same effect as the glass prism. 
If the whole spectrum be divided into 360 parts, the red will 
occupy forty-five of them, the orange twenty-seven, the yellow 
forty-eight, the green and the blue sixty each, the indigo forty, 
and the violet eighty. These numbers, however, are bv no 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


483 


means constant, depending on the peculiar nature of the re¬ 
fracting body, employed to dissect a ray of white light. 

The Rainbow is among the most interesting natural phenomena 
connected with optics, the production of which wholly depends 
on the refraction and reflection of the sun’s rays by clouds or 
drops of rain, and the consequent formation of prismatic colours. 
The rainbow is a meteor in form of a party-coloured arch, or 
semicircle, exhibited only during rain; and seen in that point of 
the heavens opposite to the sun. There is sometimes, though 
not always, distinctly visible, a secondary, ©r much fainter rainbow, 
investing the former at some distance. When the sun shines 
upon the drops of falling rain, the rays which come from those 
drops to the eye of the spectator, after one reflection and two 
refractions, produce the innermost, or primary rainbow. The 
colours of this bow, beginning at the lower margin and pro¬ 
ceeding upward in order, are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, 
orange and red ; so that it contains all the beautiful and simple 
shades which are exhibited by the prism. The secondary or 
external bow displays the same colours, but more faintly ; and 
the colours in this are arranged in a contrary order to the former; 
the red being on the lower margin, and the violet on the upper. 

V. Polarization of Light. —The discovery of this pro¬ 
perty of light was made by M. Malus, colonel of the imperial 
corps of engineers, in France, in 1810. Having accidentally 
turned a doubly refracting prism to the windows of the Palace of 
the Luxembourg, which were at the time illuminated by the setting 
sun, he was surprised to observe that one of the double images 
of the windows vanished alternately during the rotation of the 
prism, and after various fruitless speculations on the cause of this 
singular phenomenon, he was conducted to this great discovery, 
that light reflected at a particular angle from transparent bodies, 
is polarized like one of the rays produced by double refraction. 

u The phenomena of the polarization of light,” says Sir John 
Herschel, “ are so singular and various, that to one who has only 
studied the common branches of physical optics, it is like entering 
into a new world, so splendid as to render it one of the most 
delightful branches of experimental inquiry, and so fertile in the 
views it lays open of the constitution of natural bodies, and the 
minuter mechanism of the universe, as to place it in the very 
first rank of the physico-mathematical sciences, which it maintains 
by the rigorous application of geometrical reasoning, which its 
nature admits and requires.” 

In general, when a ray of light is reflected from a pane of 
plate glass, or any other substance, it may be reflected a second 


484 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


time from another surface, and it will also pass freely through 
transparent bodies ; but if a ray of light be reflected from a pane 
of plate glass at an angle of 57°, it is rendered totally incapable 
of reflection at the surface of another pane of glass in certain 
definite positions, but will be completely reflected by the second 
pane in other positions. It likewise loses the property of pene¬ 
trating transparent bodies in particular positions, whilst it is 
freely transmitted by them in others. Light so modified, as to 
be incapable of reflection and transmission in certain directions, 
is said to be polarized. This name was originally adopted from 
an imaginary analogy in the arrangement of the particles of light, 
on the corpuscular doctrine, to the poles of the magnet, and is 
still retained in the undulatory theory. If a brown tourmaline, 
which is a mineral generally crystallized in the form of a long 
prism, but cut longitudinally, that is, parallel to the axis of the 
prism, into plates about the thirtieth of an inch in thickness, and 
the surfaces polished, luminous objects may be seen through 
them, as through plates of coloured glass. The axis of each 
plate is, in its longitudinal section, parallel to the axes of the 
prism whence it was cut. If one of these plates be held per¬ 
pendicularly between the eye and the candle, and turned slowly 
round in its own plane, no change will take place in the image of 
the candle; but if the plate be held in a fixed position, with its 
axis or longitudinal section vertical, when a second plate is inter¬ 
posed between it and the eye, parallel to the first, and turned 
slowly round in its own plane, a remarkable change will be found 
to have taken place in the nature of the light, for the image of 
the candle will vanish and appear alternately at every quarter 
revolution of the plate, varying through all degrees of brightness 
down to total, or almost total, evanescence, and then increasing 
again by the same degrees, as it had before decreased. These 
changes depend upon the relative positions of the plates. When 
the longitudinal sections of the two plates are parallel, the 
brightness of the image is at its maximum ; and when the axes 
of the sections cross at right angles, the image of the candle 
vanishes. Thus the light, in passing through the first plate of 
tourmaline, has acquired a property totally different from the 
direct light of the candle. The direct light would have penetrated 
the second plate equally well in all directions, whereas the re¬ 
fracted ray will only pass through it in particular positions, and is 
altogether incapable of penetrating it in others. The refracted rav 
is polarized in its passage through the first tourmaline, and expe¬ 
rience shows that it never loses that property, unless when acted 
upon by a new substance. Thus one of the properties of polar- 


"NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


485 


ized light is proved to be the incapability of passing through a 
plate ol tourmaline perpendicular to it, in certain positions, and 
its ready transmission in other positions at right angles to the 

p 1-0 0 

former. 

Iceland spar, a carbonate of lime, which, by its natural cleavage, 
may be split into the form of a rhombohedron, possesses this 
property in an eminent degree, as may be seen by pasting a piece 
of paper, with a large pin hole in it, on the side of the spar 
farthest from the eye. The hole will appear double when held 
to the light. For the same reason one image is called the ordi¬ 
nary and the other the extraordinary image. When the spar is 
turned round in the same plane, the extraordinary image of the 
hole revolves about the ordinary image which remains fixed, both 
being equally bright. But if the spar be kept in one position, 
and viewed through a plate of tourmaline, it will be found that, 
as the tourmaline revolves, the images vary in their relative 
brightness—one increases in intensity till it arrives at a maximum, 
at the same time that the other diminishes till it vanishes, and 
so on alternately at each quarter revolution, proving both rays to 
be polarized; from one position the tourmaline transmits the 
ordinary ray, and reflects the extraordinary, and after revolving 
90°, the extraordinary ray is transmitted, and the ordinary ray is 
reflected. Thus, another property of polarized light is, that it 
cannot be divided into two equal pencils by double refraction, in 
positions of the doubly refracting bodies, in which a ray of common 
light would be so divided. 


OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

There are two principal kinds of optical instruments, namely, 
those which maybe more properly called dioptrical, as they consist of 
one or more lenses, their effects depending on the refraction of light; 
and those called catadioptrical instruments, in the construction 
of which lenses and mirrors are combined ; and hence telescopes of 
this description have been termed reflecting telescopes, to distinguish 
them from other telescopes, whose powers depend on refraction 
alone. The perfection of these instruments must consist in the ex¬ 
cellence of the lenses and mirrors of which they are formed, and 
in the accuracy of their arrangement, so that the axes of the re¬ 
spective glasses may be situated in a right line. 

Spectacles. —The employment of convex or common spec¬ 
tacles, or at least of single convex glasses to assist the sight, has 
been supposed to have originated about the close of the thirteenth 
century. There are two distinct kinds of spectacles, namely, those 


4S6 YOUNG man’s companion. 

with convex glasses, which magnify objects or bring their images 
nearer the eyes; and those with concave glasses, which diminish 
the apparent size of objects, or extend the limits of distinct vision. 
In old persons the transparent cornea becomes more flattened than 
in youth, and probably the crystalline humour undergoes a cor¬ 
responding alteration, in consequence of which the rays coming 
from objects, do not converge to a focus, so as to form a distinct 
image on the retina, unless they are relatively at a considerable 
distance from the eye. These may be therefore assisted by con¬ 
vex glasses. Those called short-sighted persons are such as have 
the transparent cornea unusually prominent, and therefore the 
rays from objects entering their eyes converge to a focus before 
they reach the retina, unless any object be placed very near the eye. 

Microscopes are instruments for viewing small objects, 
which they apparently magnify, by enabling us to see them nearer 
than with the naked eye, without affecting the distinctness of vision. 
There are three kinds of microscopes,—the single, the compound, 
and the solar. 

The single microscope is a small double convex lens, between 
the object placed in the focus, and the eye at the same distance. 

The compound microscope has both object-glass and eye-glass. 
Its power is in proportion to the image exceeding the object, and 
also to the ability to view it at a less distance. There are -often 
three eye-glasses, by which the object is less magnified, but more 
of it is seen. 

The solar microscope depends on the sun-shine, and is used in 
a darkened room. It consists of a tube, looking-glass, convex lens, 
and single microscope. The looking-glass reflects the surfs rays 
through the tube upon the object, whose image is thrown upon a 
white screen, &c. at a distance. Mr. George Adams, an eminent 
optician, invented an instrument which he called the Lucernal 
Microscope, so constructed that the objects might be illuminated 
by the light of a lamp, and thus the microscope could be used at 
any time, or in any situation. An improvement on this mode 
of displaying highly magnified images of minute objects has 
recently been adopted, by employing the splendid light produced 
by the combustion of oxygen and hydrogen gases on lime ; and 
instruments have been fitted up for the public exhibition, in the 
metropolis, of some of the most curious and interesting pheno¬ 
mena with which optical science has made us acquainted. 

Telescopes are used for discovering objects at a great distance; 
and are of two kinds, the refracting and the reflecting. 

The most simple kind of refracting or dioptrical telescope is 
that termed the astronomical telescope, consisting of two convex 


N A TURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


487 


lenses, an object-glass and an eye-glass, the foci of which concur 
in the same point. This instrument exhibits objects in an 
inverted position, and therefore can seldom be employed except 
for astronomical purposes. 

A telescope to shew objects in their natural posture, has two 
additional lenses, which give an erect posture to objects. The 
three eye-glasses have equal focal distances, and the magnifying 
power is found by dividing the focal distance of the object-glass 
by that of one of the eye-glasses. 

The difficulty of managing refractors when of great length, 
induced philosophers to attempt the construction of telescopes 
that should perform on the principle of reflection, instead of that of 
direct vision. By these attempts, shorter and more convenient 
instruments were at length produced, and which in other respects 
answer for the purposes of observation much better; for a reflector 
six feet long will magnify an object as much as a refractor of 100 
feet in length. 

The Camera Obscura is made by fixing a convex glass in 
a hole of a window shutter, and if light enters the room only 
through the glass, the pictures of all objects on the outside may 
be seen in an inverted position on a white paper placed in the 
focus of the lens. When the convex lens is placed in a tube 
inside a box with a looking glass sloping backwards, it is called a 
portable camera obscura. 

The Camera Lucida, invented by Dr. Wollaston, is an 
instrument analogous in its effects to the preceding, but of 
smaller dimensions, and therefore more convenient for many 
purposes, as for delineating distant objects, and for copying or 
reducing drawings. 

The Magic Lantern is an instrument used to magnify 
paintings on glass, and throw their images upon a white screen in 
a darkened room. It is composed of a square tin box, containing 
a lamp, behind which is placed a metallic concave reflector, and in 
front of the lamp is a plano-convex lens, which receives on its 
plane surface the reflected light of the lamp, and concentrates it 
on the object, which is magnified by another lens fitted to the ex¬ 
tremity of a tube projecting from the lantern. The objects are 
painted on thin plates of glass, which may be passed through a 
narrow opening in the tube between the two lenses. This tube 
must be double, one end moving within the other, so that the tube 
carrying the outer lens may be drawn backwards or forwards till 
the object is in the conjugate focus of that lens. Then if it be 
turned towards a vertical screen, a magnified image will be formed, 
and the further the lantern is withdrawn from the screen, the 


488 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


larger will the object appear, but when the distance is consider- 
able it becomes indistinct. 

Section VIII. — Electricity. 

The various phenomena connected with this science form a 
most interesting subject of inquiry. In order to form some just 
conception of the facts relating to any of the physical sciences, it 
is usual to lay down some of the leading principles in a theoretical 
form, by the aid of which their connexion can be represented to 
the mind, so as to combine them into an intelligible system. An 
hypothesis which naturally suggests itself for the explanation of elec¬ 
trical phenomena, is that of a very subtile and highly elastic fluid, 
pervading the earth and all other material bodies, but itself devoid 
of any sensible gravity. We must suppose this fluid to be capable 
of moving, with various degrees of facility, through the pores or 
actual substance of different kinds of matter, and the term electri¬ 
city, or electric fluid, may be employed to designate it. But we 
should carefully avoid considering it as a palpable form of matter, 
the existence of which can be directly demonstrated. Instead of 
which, it should be regarded as merely a convenient method of 
explaining certain appearances, and showing their mutual relations, 
so that we may be enabled to contemplate them in connexion with 
each other. Dr. Franklin advanced the theory of a particular fluid 
existing in all bodies, and of which each, according to its capacity, 
possessed a relatively greater or smaller quantity. When this fluid is 
in a state of equilibrium, or equally distributed among two or more 
bodies in communication with each other, it is quiescent, and no par¬ 
ticular effects are perceived; but if the equilibrium be destroyed, 
as by the contact of a body in a different electrical state, a new 
distribution takes place, and various phenomena may arise from the 
passage of electricity from one body to another. It further appeared 
that bodies in a similar state of electricity, whether of excess or defi¬ 
ciency, always attracted each other; while bodies similarly electrified 
constantly repelled each other: the terms positive and negative 
electricity were therefore adopted to designate the states of bodies, 
as to the quantities of electric fluid contained in them. This theory 
accounts satisfactorily for some of the most important phenomena, 
but there are others to which it appears to be inapplicable; in con¬ 
sequence of which, though once generally received, it is now 
almost entirely abandoned, and has been replaced by an hypothesis 
originally proposed by Mr. Symmer, an ingenious philosopher, 
who ascribed the appearances observed to the existence of two 
kinds of electric fluid, and their separate or united influence 
under various circumstances. 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


m 


According to this system all bodies in nature contain electric 
fluid; and the earth itself is to be regarded as an immense 
reservoir of electricity. This fluid is supposed to consist of a 
combination of two distinct ethereal essences, which neutralize 
each other ; and it is only when they are separated that electrical 
phenomena are observed. To these fluids English philosophers, 
borrowing in part the phraseology of Franklin, have generally 
given the names of positive and negative fluids. In France, 
however, the former has been termed the vitreous fluid, because 
it is that which is commonly produced by the friction of glass; 
and the latter has received the designation of the resinous fluid, 
as it is in the same manner exhibited by the friction of resin or 
sealing-wax; but whether there really be two different fluids, or 
that the mutual attraction and repulsion of bodies arise from the re¬ 
dundancy and deficiency of their electricities, is of no consequence, 
since all the phenomena can be explained on either hypothesis. 

Having stated the subject hypothetically, we proceed to adduce 
some of the principal facts. According to the popular idea then, 
the earth and all the bodies with which we are acquainted are 
supposed to contain a certain quantity of an exceedingly subtle 
fluid, called the electric fluid. The certain quantity belonging to 
all bodies is called their natural share, and produces no sensible 
effects. When any body becomes possessed of more or less than 
its natural quantity, it is said to be electrified, and is capable of 
exhibiting certain appearances which are ascribed to the power of 
electricity. » 

Take a stick of sealing-wax and rub it with your hand, or with 
a piece of flannel, or on your coat sleeve, and it will have the 
power of attracting small bits of paper, or other very light sub¬ 
stances, when held near them. 

If a clean and dry glass tube be rubbed several times upwards 
and downwards, and then presented to any small light substance, 
it will immediately attract and repel them alternately for a con¬ 
siderable time. The tube is then said to be excited. 

If a glass tube be rubbed several times in the dark, and then 
brought within about half an inch of the finger, a lucid spark will 
be seen between the finger and the tube, accompanied with a 
snapping noise, and the finger at the same time will perceive the 
sensation of a prick from a pin. The attraction, repulsion, 
sparkling, and noise, are the effects of electricity, and are deno¬ 
minated electrical appearances. 

If an oblong piece of metal, such as a poker, be suspended by 
means of a dry silk string, and the excited glass tube be presented 
to its upper end, then the lower end of the metallic body will 

8 n 


490 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION, 

exhibit the same phenomena as the tube itself, which shows that 
the electric fluid passes through the metal. 

If, instead of the metallic body, a stick of glass or sealing- 
wax be suspended, none of these phenomena will be exhibited, 
which proves that the electric fluid does not pass through these 
substances. 

All those bodies which, like the metallic substances, transmit 
electricity, are called conductors of that fluid. Those substances 
that will not transmit the electric fluid are called electrics, or non¬ 
conductors. 

The metals, semi-metals, and metallic ores, are conductors of 
electricity; so also are charcoal, water, and other fluids, excepting 
the aerial fluids of oil. Almost all saline and many earthy sub¬ 
stances are also conductors. 

The following substances are electrics, or non-conductors of 
electricity; namely, vitrified substances, precious stones, amber, 
sulphur, resinous substances, wax, silk, cotton, feathers, wool, 
hair, paper, elastic fluids, sugar, oils, metallic oxides, animal and 
vegetable ashes, dry vegetable substances, as baked wood, &c. 

All substances become conductors when they are made hot. 

When a body has more than its natural quantity of this fluid, 
it is said to be positively electrified: when it has less than its 
natural share, it is said to be negatively electrified. 

When a conductor is so surrounded by non-conductors that 
the electric fluid cannot pass from it to the earth, it is said to be 
insulated. 

The human body is a good conductor of electricity; but if a 
person stand on a cake of resin, or on a stool supported by glass 
legs, the electric fluid cannot pass from him to the earth. * & 

The principal method of exciting the electric fluid is, by 
friction. When a conductor and an electric are rubbed ag’ainst 
each other, the electric is the most powerfully excited: in this 
case the electric fluid passes from the conductor to the electric. 

If a smooth glass tube be rubbed with the hand, the electric 
fluid will leave the hand, and pass upon the tube, which will now 
have moie than its natural quantity. If the finger of any con¬ 
ducting substance be presented to the tube, the electricity will 
pass to it. J 

4 v o substances, both positively or both negatively electrified 
repel each other. Two substances, of which one is positively 
and the other negatively electrified, attract each other. 

If the person who rubs a glass tube be insulated, both the 
penson and the glass become electrified, and capable of attracting 
and repelling light bodies; but the electricity of the person will 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


491 


differ from that of the tube, as the following experiments will 
show. 

Experiment —1. Let two cork balls, connected by a linen 
thread, be held by a silk thread, attached to the middle of the 
former, at some distance from a wall; then bring the excited 
tube near the balls, and it will first attract, and soon after repel 
them; this repulsion will continue for a considerable time, though 
the tube be removed. 

2. Let another pair of cork balls be brought in contact with 
the insulated person, and they also will repel each other. 

3. But if the two pairs of balls be brought near, they will 
attract each other, and the electrical virtue will disappear; which 
shows that there are two electricities, one being the reverse of 
the other, and seeming to have what the other wants. 

4. If the insulated person rub a stick of sulphur, or resin, or 
sealing-wax, that substance will acquire the electricity which in 
the preceding experiment was acquired by the insulated man. 

Hence positive and negative electricity have been called 
vitreous and resinous. 

These electricities always accompany each other, for, if any 
substance acquire the one, the body with which it is rubbed 
acquires the other. 

YV lien one side of a conductor receives the electric fluid, its 
whole substance is instantly pervaded with it; whereas, when an 
electric is presented to an electrified body, it becomes electrified 
in a small spot only. 

If to one side of an electric, namely, a pane of window glass, 
you communicate positive electricity, the opposite side will be 
negatively electrified, and that plate is said to be charged. 

The positive and negative electricities cannot come together, 
unless a communication by means of conductors is made between 
their sides. 

When the two electricities are united, their virtues are destroyed, 
and the act of their union is called the electric shock. 

Machines have been contrived for rubbing together electrics 
and conductors, and for collecting the electric fluid from sur¬ 
rounding- bodies. These are called electrical machines. 

Fig. 14 represents an electrical machine of the simplest sort. 
GEF is a strong board, which supports all the parts of this 
machine, and which may be fastened to a table by means of one 
or more iron or brass clamps, as Q; the glass cylinder AB is 
supported by the two glass legs G and E; IK is the rubber, and 
IKK is a silken flap. This cushion or rubber is fastened to a 
spring which proceeds from a socket cemented on the top of the 


492 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


glass pillar S. The lower part of this pillar is fixed into a small 
board, which slides upon the bottom board of the machine, and 
by means of a screw-nut and a slit at H, may be fixed more or 
less forward, in order that the rubber may press more or less 
upon the cylinder. NF is a glass pillar which is fixed in the 
bottom board, and supports the prime conductor, ML, of 
hollow brass or tin plate, which has the collector or pointed 
wires at L, and a knobbed wire at M. From the brass knob, O, 
a longer spark may be drawn than from any other part of the 
conductor. When the cylinder is turned swiftly, the friction of 
the glass against the rubber causes the electric fluid which was in 
the rubber to pass to the glass, from whence it is conveyed to the 
prime conductor, the points of which, a, are presented to every 
part of the cylinder in succession. If one end of a chain be put 
on the knob x, and the other end hang on the ground, there will 
be a constant supply of the electric fluid to the prime conductor, 
which will be discharged in sparks to any body presented to it. 
The rubber is supplied by means of the things in immediate 
contact, and these again are supplied by the general mass of the 
fluid that is lodged in the earth. 

Electrical Attraction and Repulsion. —Bodies that 
are charged with the same electricity repel each other; but if 
one have more and the other less than its share, they will attract 
one another. 

Experiment —1. If a tuft of feathers be hung on the prime 
conductor, LM, the moment they are electrified by turning the 
wheel of the machine, they will endeavour to avoid one another 
and stand erect, because, being all electrified by the same elec¬ 
tricity, they repel each other. 

2. A large feather will, if placed in the hole z , when the 
machine is worked, become beautifully turgid, expanding its 
fibres in all directions; and they collapse when the electricity is 
taken off by presenting any conducting substance to them. 

3. Excite a glass tube eighteen or twenty inches long 3 then 
piescnt to it a small feather, which will first be attracted by it, 
and afterwards jump from it. If no other body happen to be in 
the way, it will tend towards the ground ; but if the tube be 
held under it, it will be still repelled, and may be driven about 
for a considerable time. 

4. Suspend a plate of metal from the conductor, and, under¬ 
neath it, at the distance of about three or four inches, put another 
plate of the same size ; upon the lower one small feathers, pieces 
of paper, &c., may be placed ; these will, as soon as the machine is 
worked, jump to the plate, from which they will be repelled, and 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


493 


fly to discharge themselves upon the lower plate, from which they 
will be repelled again, and so continue till the electricity of the 
upper plate is completely discharged. 

5. If two balls made of cork or of the pith of alder, about 
the size of large peas, be fastened to silk threads, they will hang 
parallel to each other, so as to be in contact, but when brought near 
the electrified prime conductor, they will strongly repel each other. 

6 These balls, in their electrified state, show whether the elec¬ 
tricity is positive or negative ; for, if it be positive, by applying 
an excited stick of sealing-wax, the thread will collapse; but, if it 
be negative, the sealing-wax will make them recede still farther. 

A pair of cork or pith balls is used to discover the presence of 
electricity, and is denominated an electrometer. 

Fig. 15 represents a quadrant electrometer, which may be 
fixed in a hole, Z, of the prime conductor, fig. 14. It consists 
of a very light rod and pith ball, turning on the centre of a 
semicircle, B. According to the strength of the electricity, 
the pith ball flies off, and the scale marks the degree in which the 
prime conductor is electrified. 

If a body containing only its natural share of electricity be 
brought near a body that is electrified positively or negatively, a 
part of the electricity, in the form of a spark, will force itself 
through the air, from the latter to the former. When two bodies, 
one electrified positively, the other negatively, approach each 
other, the superabundant electricity rushes violently from one to 
the other, to restore the equilibrium. 

If an animal be placed so as to form part of this circuit, the 
electricity in passing through it produces a sudden and violent 
effect, called the electric shock. The motion of electricity in 
passing from a positive to a negative body is so rapid, that it 
appears to be instantaneous. 

When any part of one side of glass is presented to a body 
electrified positively or negatively, that side of the glass becomes 
possessed of the contrary kind of electricity to the side of the 
body it is presented to, and the other side of the glass is pos¬ 
sessed of the same kind of electricity as the other body. 

If the knob, O, of the prime conductor, fig. 15, be electrified 
positively, and a pane of glass be presented to the side next to 
O, it will be negatively electrified, and the other side will be 
positively electrified. Electricity communicated to glass does 
not spread beyond the spot where it is thrown, on account of its 
non-conducting quality. Electricity may be communicated to 
the whole surface of glass or any part of it, if it be covered with 
a metallic substance, as tin-foil. This is called coating the glass. 


4.04 YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 

1 

If a conducting communication be made between both sides 
of a glass thus coated and charged with electricity, a discharge 
takes place. Glass of any form, provided it be sound, will 
answer the purpose, but cylindrical jars are chiefly used. A 
glass bottle or jar properly coated for electrical purposes is called 
a Leyden phial, or jar, from the place where this property was 
discovered. 

Fig. 16 represents a Leyden jar, coated with tin-foil on the 
inside and outside, to within about three inches of the top of its 
cylindrical part; and having a wire with a round brass knob, or 
ball, A, at its extremity. This wire passes through the cork or 
wooden stopple, D: at its lower extremity is a piece of cVain that 
touches the inside coating in several parts. To charge this jar, 
a communication is made between the electrical machine and 
the brass knob, A, while the outside of the jar communicates with 
the earth by the table or the hand. 

Experiment —1. Bring the knob, A, at the jar near the 
prime conductor, and after a few turns of the machine the jar 
will be charged; that is, the inside of the jar will be posi¬ 
tively, and the outside negatively electrified ; or, if the inside 
is negatively, the outside will be positively electrified. R is a 
discharging rod, which is used to convey the superabundant 
electricity from one side to the other where there is less than the 
natural share. The discharging rod consists of two knobs, aa , 
attached to wires, which move round a joint X fixed to a glass 
handle. 

2. When one of the knobs is applied to the ball. A, and the 
other to the outside coating, a communication is made between 
the outside and inside of the jar, by which the equilibrium is in¬ 
stantly restored by the superabundant electricity passing from one 
side to the other, appearing in the form of a vivid flash, accom¬ 
panied with a loud report. 

3. A shock may be taken by putting one hand to the 
outside coating, as at a, and bringing the other to the knob, A. 

4. Any number of persons may receive the shock together by 
laying hold of hands, the person at one end bringing his hand 
near the knob A. It there were a hundred persons so situated, 
they would every one feel the shock at the same instant. The 
electric fluid may be conveyed many miles in a moment of time. 

Several Leyden jars, connected together by making a commu¬ 
nication between all the outsides, and another communication 
between all their insides, form an electric battery. Electricity, 
by means of the battery, is capable of producing the most powerful 
effects. A very slender wire being made part of the circuit, will. 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


495 


by the discharge of the battery, become instantly red hot. It 
sometimes melts into small globules of different sizes. 

If between two slips of window-glass some gold leaf be placed, 
and the slips of glass be pressed firmly together, and the shock 
from the battery sent through them, the gold leaf will be forced 
into the pores of the glass. 

If the gold leaf be put between cards, and a strong charge be 
passed through them, it will be completely fused. Gunpowder 
may be fired by the electrical battery. 

Metallic points attract the electricity from bodies silently, 
which renders them useful in defending buildings from lightning. 

When electricity enters a point, it appears in the form of a star; 
when it goes out from a point, it puts on the appearance of a 
bush. 

Instruments may be put in motion by the electric fluid which 
issues from a point; hence we have electrical orreries, mills, &c. 

Lightning is the rapid motion of vast masses of the electric 
matter. Thunder is the noise produced by the motion of light¬ 
ning. When the electric fluid passes through highly rarified air, 
it constitutes the aurora borealis , or northern lights. Most of 
the great convulsions of nature, such as earthquakes, whirlwinds, 
hurricanes, &c. are generally accompanied with, and dependent 
upon electrical phenomena. 

The atmosphere, when clear, is almost always positively electric ; 
its electricity is stronger in winter than in summer, during the 
day than in the night. The intensity increases for two or three 
hours from the time of sunrise, then decreases towards the middle 
of the day, and again augments as the sun declines, till about the 
time of sunset, after which it diminishes, and continues feeble 
during the night. Atmospheric electricity arises from an evolu¬ 
tion of the electric fluid during the evaporation that is so abundant 
at the surface of the earth; and clouds probably owe their ex¬ 
istence, or at least their form, to it. The friction of the surfaces of 
two strata of air moving in different directions, probably developes 
electricity : and if the strata be of different temperatures, a 
portion of tire vapour they always contain will be deposited; the 
electricity evolved will be taken up by the vapour, and will cause 
it to assume the vesicular state constituting a cloud. A vast deal 
of electricity may be accumulated in this manner, which may 
either be positive or negative, and should two clouds charged with 
opposite kinds approach within a certain distance, the thickness of 
the coating of electricity will increase on the two sides of the 
clouds that are nearest to one another, and when the accumulation 
becomes so great as to overcome the coercive pressure »f the 


m 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


atmosphere, a discharge takes place, which occasions a flash of light¬ 
ning. The actual quantity of electricity in any one part of a 
cloud is extremely small; the intensity ol the flash arises from the 
verv great extent of surface occupied by the electricity, so that 
the clouds may be compared to enormous Leyden jars, thinly 
coated with the electric fluid, which only acquires its intensity by 
its instantaneous condensation. 

Among the latest discoveries in natural philosophy are certain 
singular and important facts which afford grounds for extending 
the theory of electricity to all those phenomena previously regarded 
as belonging to the separate science of magnetism. The term 
electro-magnetism has been adopted to designate this class of 
phenomena; and that of electro-chemistry has been used with 
reference to the effect of the electric influence on the chemical 
composition of bodies ; and the manner in which bodies are affected 
by the irregular distribution of heat, inducing in them or dissipating 
electricity or magnetism, has been termed thermo-electricity. 

Section IX.— Galvanism. 

Galvanism is a peculiar kind of electricity, elicited by the force 
of chemical action, instead of friction. It is connected with one 
of the most brilliant periods of British science, from the splendid 
discoveries to which it led Sir Humphry Davy ; but it has acquired 
additional interest since it has been proved, by the reciprocal 
action of galvanic and magnetic currents, that magnetism has 
no existence as a distinct or separate principle, but is only an 
effect of electricity ; therefore, galvanism, as immediately con¬ 
nected with the theory of the earth and planets, forms a part of 
the physical account of their nature. 

The exhibition of phenomena apparently depending on elec¬ 
tricity, by the voluntary action of animals, in the case of the 
torpedo, and some other fishes, which communicate a kind of 
electric shock to those who touch them, had long been known, 
when Galvani, professor of anatomy at Bologna, in 1790, observed 
that the contact of metals with the nerves of a frog recently 
killed, produced convulsive motions, which might, for some time 
after the death of the animal, be renewed at pleasure, by repeating 
the application of the metals. Those singular phenomena were 
at first supposed to depend on some peculiar action of metals 
on the nerves of animals; and were regarded as constituting 
the foundation of a new science, to which was appropriated the 
appellation of Galvanism. However, the important discovery by 
Professor Volta, of Pavia, of the electric effect of certain 






NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


497 


arrangements of different metals, forming wliat lias been since called 
a voltaic pile, and that of the similarity of the effect of elec¬ 
tricity accumulated from bodies excited in the usual manner by 
friction, with the effect of such a pile, contributed to the intro¬ 
duction of more correct views of the nature of electrical galvanic 
phenomena. 

It has been found that when two metals are brought into 
contact and then separated, they will exhibit opposite states of 
electricity. Thus, if an insulated disc of zinc be laid on one of 
silver or copper, and then removed by means of some non-con¬ 
ducting substance, the zinc, on being applied to a delicate electro¬ 
meter, will show positive, and the silver or copper, on the other 
hand, negative electricity. Whence it may be inferred that a 
portion of electricity had been transferred from the silver or copper 
to the zinc, and to its passage are to be attributed the convulsions 
of the muscles of animals when their nerves are in contact with 
metals arranged in a galvanic circuit. A simple galvanic circle may 
be formed by the apparatus represented fig. 17, consisting of a 
plate of zinc, Z, and one of copper, C, immersed to a certain 
depth in sulphuric acid, greatly diluted with water contained in a 
glass vessel. Then, when the upper edges of the metals are 
brought into contact, a current of electricity will take place, the 
electric fluid circulating from the zinc to the acid, from the acid 
to the copper, thence again to the zinc, and soon in the direction 
indicated bv the darts. Various modifications of this arrangement 
may be contrived ; thus, instead of making the metals communicate 
immediately, as above, a wire of any metal may be attached to 
the upper extremities of each plate, and when the wires are 
brought together, the circuit of electricity will go on, but when 
they are separated it will be interrupted. The effects of such an 
arrangement as that just described, at least with small metal plates, 
will be but inconsiderable. Hence Professor Volta conceived the 
idea of forming what may be termed a compound galvanic or 
voltaic circle, called the voltaic pile. It consists in arranging a 
number of discs of different metals, as zinc and copper, with cloth 
or pasteboard soaked in some acid or saline solution between them ; 
as thus the effect might be indefinitely augmented, according to 
the number and size of the discs. 

But this instrument was found inconvenient; and therefore 
has been superseded by the galvanic trough or battery. This 
may consist of a trough, T, fig. 18, constructed of baked 
mahogany, with partitions of glass in the interior; or it may be 
formed of Wedgwood ware, with interior cells, each trough con¬ 
taining ten or twelve. The metal plates, PP, fig. 19, adapted 


4.98 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

to them, are united by a bar of baked wood, AB, so that the 
whole set may be let down into the trough, or lifted out together. 
The cells are to be filled with water or diluted acid when the 
instrument is to be used, and the plates being placed in them, 
each cell will contain a zinc and a copper plate, and the circulation 
of the electric fluid will take place throughout the whole, while 
wires proceeding from the last plate on one side, and from the 
last copper plate on the other, any bodies, by being placed between 
the wires, will form a part of the circuit, and be subjected to the 
action of the electric fluid. When the necessary experiments 
are completed, the plates should be lifted out of the trough, that 
they may not be too hastily corroded by the acid. 

Though the most efficient voltaic circles, whether arranged as 
piles or troughs, are such as consist of plates of different metals 
and layers of fluid matter containing oxygen, as already described, 
yet combinations may be formed of various kinds of matter, 
besides metals and acids, manifesting analogous effects; though, 
in most cases, with far inferior energy. 

Section X.— Magnetism. 

In order to explain the other methods of exciting electricitv, 
and the recent discoveries that have been made in that science, it 
is necessary to be acquainted with the general theory of magnet¬ 
ism. It was long since conjectured by some philosophers that a 
connexion exists between this science and electricity, and that 
electric and magnetic phenomena arise from the same cause. 
The power of the natural magnet or loadstone to attract iron 
was known to the ancients, though they did not avail themselves 
of it for any useful purpose. The natural magnet or loadstone 
is an ore of iron, originally found in the country of Magnesia, in 
Asia, whence it derived its name; but it is by no means un¬ 
common in various parts of the world. The principal varieties 
are those called by mineralogists natural loadstones, earthy 
loadstones, and magnetic iron ore, all which are oxides of iron, 
These bodies, as well as some other iron ores, have long been known 
to possess the property of attracting metallic iron when brought 
nearly in contact with it. The magnetic property is capable* of 
being communicated to steel by touching it with a natural magnet; 
and in this manner artificial magnets are formed for various^ pur¬ 
poses. The attraction of iron is to be regarded as only one of 
the peculiar effects of magnetism, but there is another, which, 
though less imposing and obvious, is highly important; namely’ 
the polarity of magnetic bodies, or that tendency they possess! 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


409 


when capable of free motion, to assume such a position that one 
particular part, as one extremity of an iron rod suspended horizon¬ 
tally, shall be directed towards the northern region of the earth, 
and the opposite extremity towards the southern regions. On 
tliis property depends the utility of the mariner’s compass, which 
essentially consists of a magnetic needle suspended on a pivot, so 
that it may turn horizontally without obstruction. 

A magnet at liberty constantly presents the same end towards 
the north pole, and of course the opposite part towards the south 
pole of the earth. Those parts so turned towards the earth’s 
poles are called the magnet’s north and south poles. The pointing 
to these poles is called the directive power, and its motion to 
place itself in that direction is called vibration or traversing. 
The intensity of magnetism is determined by the number of 
vibrations which a needle, when brought near a magnet, makes 
before it fixes. 

The magnetic meridian passes through its poles, standing in 
their natural direction ; its . declination, or that of the magnetic 
needle, is the angle the magnetic meridian makes with the meri¬ 
dian of the place. The north or south poles of two magnets 
repel each other; but the north pole of one attracts the south 
pole of the other. Place a magnetic needle upon a pin stuck on 
a table, and, when steady, place upon the table an iron bar eight 
inches long, and half an inch thick, with one end on one side of 
the north pole, sufficiently near to draw it a little out of its 
natural direction. Then bring gradually the north pole of the 
magnet to the other extremity of the bar, and the needle’s north 
end will recede from the bar, in proportion to the magnet’s 
approach. 

Electro-Magnetism. —The connexion of electricity with 

«/ 

magnetism had long been indicated by the effect of lightning 
in magnetizing needles and bars of iron, and by directing expe¬ 
riments with electrical batteries; but accident led to the discovery 
of the true mode of action. It was not known that the electric 
current, passing uninterruptedly through a wire connecting the 
two ends of a galvanic battery, is capable of being manifested by 
any effect, till Professor Oersted, of Copenhagen, in the winter of 
1819, discovered an unequivocal test of its passage in its effect 
on the magnetic needle. The opposite poles of a battery of 
sufficient magnitude, in full action, were joined by a metallic 
wire, which, for shortness, he calls the uniting conductor, or 
uniting wire. This wire was either placed horizontally, or bent 
in any other direction required by the nature of the experiment. 
When the wire was placed horizontally over the parallel to a 


500 


YOUNG Man's COMPANION'. 


magnetic needle properly suspended, and at a distance not ex¬ 
ceeding three quarters of an inch, the needle was moved, and 
the end of it next to the negative pole of the battery turned 
westwards, the circumstances of the experiment remaining in 
every respect the same, except that the uniting wire was placed 
under the needle instead of over it; the declination of the needle 
was in an opposite direction, for the pole next the negative end 
of the battery now turned eastwards. Again, when the con¬ 
necting wire and needle were situated in the same horizontal 
plane, no declination took place, either in the east or west, but 
an inclination, or vertical dip of the needle, was observed. When 
the uniting wire was west of the needle, the pole next to the 
negative end of the battery was depressed ; when the wire was 
to the east, the same pole was elevated. When the uniting wire 
w as situated perpendicularly to the plane of the magnetic meridian, 
the needle, whether above or below the wire, remained at rest 
unless the pole were very near the wire. In that case, the pole was 
elevated if the negative electricity entered from the west side ; 
and depressed if from the east. 

These, and other experiments of a similar kind, tend to prove 
that the force emanating from the electric current, which produces 
such effects on the magnetic needle, acts at right angles to the 
current, and is therefore unlike any force hitherto known. 

^ The science of electro-magnetism relates to the reciprocal action 
of electrical and magnetic currents ; but there are other branches 
of science arising out of this, which we can only briefly allude 
to. M. Ampere, by discovering the mutual action of electrical 
currents on one another, has added a new branch to the subject, 
to which he has given the name of electro-dynamics. 

From the law of action and reaction being equal and contrarv 
it might be expected that, as electricity powerfully affects magnets, 
so, conversely, magnetism ought to produce electrical phenomena! 
By proving this very important fact from a series of highly inter¬ 
esting and ingenious experiments, Dr. Faraday has added another 
branch to the science, which he has named magneto-electricitv. 

M. Arago discovered an entirely new source of magnetism in 
rotatory motion. If a circular plate of copper be made to revolve 
immediately above or below a magnetic needle or magnet, sus¬ 
pended in such a manner that the needle may rotate in a plane 
parallel to that of the copper plate, the magnet tends to follow 
the circumvolution of the plate; or if the magnet revolves, the 
plate tends to follow its motion ; and so powerful is the effect, 
that magnets and plates of many pounds' weight have been 
carried round. 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 


501 


In all the experiments hitherto described, artificial magnets 
alone were used, but it is obvious that the magnetism of the 
terrestrial spheroid, which has so powerful an influence on the 
mariners compass, must also affect electrical currents. It con¬ 
sequently appears that a piece of copper wire bent into a rect¬ 
angle, and free to revolve on a vertical axis, arranges itself with 
its plane at right angles to the magnetic meridian, as soon as a 
stream of electricity is sent through it. Under the same cir¬ 
cumstances a similar rectangle, suspended on a horizontal axis at 
right angles to the magnetic meridian, assumes the same inclination 
with the dipping needle. So that terrestrial magnetism has the same 
influence on electrical currents as an artificial magnet. But the 
magnetic action of the earth also induces electric currents. When 
a hollow helix of copper wire, whose extremities are connected 
with the galvanometer, is placed in the magnetic dip, and suddenly 
inverted several times, accommodating the motion to the oscillations 
of the needle, the latter is soon made to vibrate through an arc 
of 80° or 90°. Hence it is evident, that whatever may be the 
cause of terrestrial magnetism, it produces currents of electricity, 
by its direct inductive power, upon a metal not capable of exhi¬ 
biting any of the ordinary magnetic properties. 


502 


YOUNG man's COMPANION. 


CHAPTER XII. 

NATURAL HISTORY. 


Natural History comprises the general description and 
classical arrangement of all the objects in nature, and in its most 
extensive meaning includes many of the subjects contained in the 
last chapter. The variety of natural productions being confessedly 
very great, it is necessary to find out some means of distinguishing 
them from each other, and of recognising them anew. These 
means are the peculiarities, or the assemblages of peculiarities, that 
exclusively belong to each body. It is only by the combination 
of several of these properties that we can distinguish an object 
from others which resemble it in possessing some one or more of 
those very properties; and the more numerous the species we 
compare, the more necessary it becomes to bring their properties 
together, in order to assign to each a character that may distinguish 
it from the rest. The most obvious general division of the works 
of nature is that of inorganic and organized bodies ; to the former 
division all minerals, and to the latter, all plants and animals 
belong. 

An inorganic body is any portion of matter, the parts of which 
would not be changed although they were separated ; or, it is a 
body which may be dissolved, but cannot die, or in the form that 
it has, cannot have died. When a stone is taken from a quarry, 
or a fragment broken from a rock, neither the part that is taken 
away, nor the mass from which it is taken, undergoes the least 
change; but if a branch be taken from a tree, a limb from an 
animal, or a wing from a bird, the part so taken soon changes and 
decays, and the functions of that from which it is taken alter. 

An organized body is made up of parts which differ from each 
other in appearance, situation, nature, and use; it proceeds from 
some seed or germ that can be obtained nowhere but from a former 
body of the same species; and it has the faculty of growing, that 
is, of increasing its own substance by assimilating or changing the 
nature of other substances. 

The inorganic kingdom presents to the naturalist three obvious 
subdivisions ; those of the air, or atmosphere, the water, and the 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


503 


earth. The natural history of the atmosphere is usually studied 
in connexion with the truths of natural philosophy. See Pneu¬ 
matics, chap. xi. sect. 4. 

The science which explains the phenomena of the water, is also 
connected with natural philosophy, under the terms Hydraulics 
and Hydrostatics. See chap. xi. sect. 2, 3. 

The history of the materials of which the external surface of 
the earth is composed (comprehending what is sometimes called 
the mineral kingdom,) is included under the general terms of 
Mineralogy and Geology. See chap. xiv. 

Organized bodies have been usually subdivided into the animal 
and vegetable kingdoms. The latter of these forms a separate 
study, and is comprehended in the chapter on Botany. See 
chap. xiii. 

The history and description of the animal kingdom, (or natural 
history in its more popular and restricted sense) is termed Zoology, 
and forms the subject of the present chapter. 

ZOOLOGY. 

This branch of natural history, like botany, has been subject to 
an arrangement into classes, orders, genera, species, &c., which 
have been distinguished by names borrowed from the Greek and 
Latin languages. In the classification of animals, the general rule 
is to take the characters of the class from those qualities of the 
animals which are the most conspicuous, and at the same time 
the most important. The most remarkable distinctions in the 
structure and appearance of animals, consist in having the brain 
inclosed in a cranium, or skull, and a back-bone, consisting of joints 
or vertebrae, and being destitute of these. Those that have the 
back-bone are called vertebral animals, and those that have it not, 
are called invertebral. 

Upon these general distinctions, naturalists have founded their 
artificial systems of zoology, which are very numerous, and have 
been subject to continual changes, according to the knowledge, 
taste, and feeling of the inventors. The system of Linnaeus, 
though in many respects imperfect, is still generally referred to as 
the basis of all others. The system of Cuvier is considered as 
founded on a more intimate acquaintance with the anatomical 
structure of animals, and has been adopted with various modifi¬ 
cations, by most scientific inquirers. Yet, as that of Linnaeus is 
better known, and more popular in this country, it is taken with 
some modifications as the basis of the following classification. 

Linnaeus divided the animal kingdom into six classes :—1. Such 


504 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 

as suckle their young ( Mammalia ); which includes the whole 
race of quadrupeds, besides the cetaceous tribes. 2. Birds ( Axes ). 
3. Amphibious animals {Amphibia), including frogs, tortoises, 
lizards, and serpents. 4. Fishes {Pisces). 5. Insects {Insecta). 
6. Worms ( Vermes.) 

In the following descriptions we shall endeavour to avail 
ourselves of the aid afforded by a classical arrangement, and yet, 
as far as possible, retain the English names. 

Where the Latin or Greek names are used, the explanation 
will be given either immediately or in the connecting sentences. 
In some cases they are added between parentheses, so that, if 
required, they may be omitted without destroying the sense. 

Class I.—Mammalia- 

Under this class is included nearly the whole race of quadrupeds. 
Whether we direct our attention to the structure of their bodies, 
or their various and wonderful instincts, to their ability to render 
us service, or their power to injure us, we cannot but consider 
them as prominent and interesting objects of curiosity. The 
internal conformation in quadrupeds is strikingly analogous to 
that of man ; so that, in some species of the monkey tribe in 
particular, it requires no small skill in physiology to make the 
discrimination. Their instincts seem also sometimes to approximate 
to the reasoning faculty, and to exhibit an appearance of some¬ 
thing like the human passions. 

The distinguishing marks of quadrupeds of the class of mam¬ 
malia are, that, like man, they have warm and red blood ; their 
skeleton, as well as their internal organs, resemble, in a great 
measure, those of the human species. Their outward covering is 
generally hair, though sometimes they are covered with prickles, 
and sometimes with scales. Their feet are generally furnished 
with separate toes or divisions, guarded by claws, more or less 
strong in the different tribes. In the monkeys the feet have the 
appearance of hands ; and the claws often bear a great resemblance 
to the human nails. In some tribes of mammalia the feet are 
armed, or shod with hoofs, either quite entire, or cloven or divided. 
The teeth are of three kinds: 1. Front or cutting teeth of a 
broad compressed structure, designed for cutting their food. 2. 
Sharp, lengthened, or canine teeth, situated on each side of the 
cutting teeth, and calculated for tearing and dividing the food. 
3. Grinders, with broad angular tops, for comminuting or grinding 
the food; they are situated, as in the human subject, on each 
side the jaws. The teeth afford a principal character in forming 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


5 05 

the tribes and genera, or particular sets of quadrupeds; for in 
some the canine teeth are wanting; in others, the front teeth ; 
and some few are totally destitute of any teeth. The senses of 
the mammalia consist, as in man, of the organs of sight, hearing, 
tasting, and smelling, and the power of feeling. 

This class of animals has been variously divided by naturalists 
into orders, genera, and species. In some systems the characters 
are taken chiefly from their anatomical structure; in others, more 
natural and obvious distinctions have been adopted. The number 
of distinct species is reckoned, by some naturalists, at about three 
hundred; others have enumerated upwards of four hundred : but 
in these cases distinctions may be multiplied according to opinion 
and fancy. 

In the system of the celebrated Linnaeus this class contains 
seven orders ; the general characters of which must be briefly no¬ 
ticed, with a description of a few of the most interesting examples. 

Order 1.— Primates. 

This order k called primates, or first, and it is so entitled as 
containing the chiefs of the creation. The characters are,—four 
front or cutting teeth, above and below, and one canine, or 
sharpened tooth, on each side these. The feet are formed with a 
resemblance of hands, and the nails are more or less oval in 
shape. Most of the species feed chiefly on vegetable substances. 

To this order, besides man, (genus Homo,) Linnaeus assigns 
the following genera,— Simia , including the ourang-outang, apes, 
monkeys, and baboons; Lemur , the macauco, a genus somewhat 
resembling the monkey ; Vespertilio , the bat. 

Genus Homo, Man.—In a merely zoological point of view, 
this stands as the first genus in the Linnaean system. It is thus 
described :—erect; two handed ; prominent chin ; teeth of uni¬ 
form height, in an unbroken series ; the lower incisors, or cutting 
teeth, perpendicular. 

Of all the animal creation, the most extraordinary production 
of the great Author of nature is man. His mental powers, or the 
use of his reason, distinguish him from all other living creatures ; 
and in him are united the properties both of animal and rational 
creatures. In its anatomical structure, the human frame does not 
materially differ from many of the quadrupeds ; on this account 
it has been placed by Linnaeus in his first class of animals, under 
the generic name of homo. The bodily powers of man, if taken 
collectively, are equal to most of the other animals, though there 
are many individual species which excel him in some particular 
qualities, as the horse in strength, the stag in swiftness, &c. 


5 06 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Although all mankind are originally descended from one 
common parent, yet the influence of climate, civilization, and 
different modes of life, have produced many diversities in the 
human form, which naturalists have described under several leading 
and prominent divisions. The varieties of the human species, as 
arranged by the celebrated comparative anatomist, Blumenbach, 
are five in number:— 

1. Caucasian variety , which includes the Europeans (excepting 
the Laplanders, and the rest of the Finnish race,) the western 
Asiatics, as far as the river Ob, the Caspian sea, and the Ganges, 
and the northern Africans. 

2. Mongolian variety , which includes the rest of the Asiatics 
(excepting the Malays), the Finnish races of the colder parts of 
Europe, as the Laplanders, &c. and the tribes of Esquimaux, 
extending over the northern parts of America, from Bhering’s 
Strait to the extremity of Greenland. 

3. Ethiopian variety contains the remaining Africans, besides 
those classed in the first variety. 

4. American variety: to this belong all the Americans, except 
the Esquimaux. 

5. Malay variety includes all the inhabitants of Malacca, of 
the South Sea, Ladrone, Philippine, Molucca, and Sunda islands. 
Each variety is distinguished by the colour of the hair, and some 
striking peculiarities of feature. 

Sim i a, Ape.—The animals of this genus, best known by the 
familiar name of apes or monkeys, are worthy of particular 
attention, on account of their near resemblance to the human 
species. They are a very lively tribe of anim-als, possess extra¬ 
ordinary powers of imitation, and in general are exceedingly 
prone to mischief. This genus is usually distributed under three 
subdivisions, viz. apes, baboons, and monkeys. 

Of the apes the most remarkable is the ourang-outang, or wild 
man of the woods, (simia satyrus) ; it is of various sizes,from three 
to seven feet high: its stature is, however, generally less than that 
of a man, but its strength much greater. Tt is said they are so 
powerful in some of the tropical climates, that it would take ten 
men to secure one of them ; and that they will attack the largest 
elephant with clubs, and compel him to leave that part of the 
forest which they claim as their own. 

Of the baboons, the common baboon, the mandril, and the 
wanderow have very short tails. 

Monkeys differ from the above in having long tails, and some 
make use of them to coil round any object so as to support 
themselves in otherwise perilous situations. 


natural history. 


507 


Vespertilio, Bat.—In these animals the bones of the extre¬ 
mities are continued into long and thin processes, connected by a 
most delicately formed membrane or skin, capable, from its thinness, 
of being contracted at pleasure into innumerable wrinkles, so as to 
lie in a small space when the animal is at rest, and to be stretched 
to a very wide extent for occasional flight. There are many species 
of this genus; but the bat most common in England is about the 
size of a mouse ; and, independent of its wings, very much re¬ 
sembles that little animal. 


Order 2. — Brut a. 

This order is characterised by a want of front or cutting teeth, 
both in the upper and lower jaw. The feet are armed with strong- 
claws ; their pace is in general somewhat slow, and their food is 
chiefly vegetable. 

The principal genera are, 1. Brady pus, the sloth. 2. Myr- 
mecophaga , the ant-eater. 3. Platypus , the duck-bill. 4. Manis , 
the pangolin. 5. Dasypus , the armadillo. 

Bradypus, Sloth.—The animals of this genus are so called 
from their movements being wonderfully slow. There are but 
three species, two of which are natives of Soulh America, and 
the third of India. They are generally mild, harmless creatures. 

Platypus, Duck-bill.—Of all the mammalia yet known, this 
seems the most extraordinary in its conformation, exhibiting the 
perfect resemblance of the beak of a duck ingrafted on the head of 
a quadruped. The whole animal is thickly covered with a strong 
but soft and glossy hair, and has four webbed feet, furnished with 
sharp claws. This dubious quadruped is a native of Australia, 
or New Holland, and is supposed to feed on worms, water-insects, 
and weeds. 

D asypus, Armadillo.—The animals of this tribe are called, 
armadillos, from the singular armour by which the upper part of 
their bodies is defended. This is composed partly of-large irre¬ 
gular pieces covering the shoulders and rump, and partly of regular 
bands lying between these, and folding one over another, like the 
parts of a lobster's tail, so as to accommodate themselves to all the 
motions of the animal. 

Rhinoceros. —Except the elephant, this is the largest of all 
terrestrial animals, and in strength and power it is exceeded by 
none. It is generally about ten or twelve feet long, and nearly as 
many in the circumference of its body. The horn, which is some¬ 
times three feet long, is used by the rhinoceros both as an offensive 


508 


/ 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 

and defensive weapon, by which it is completely armed against 
the attacks of the most ferocious animals. The rhinoceros is 
a native both of the continent of Asia, and of several of the 
islands in the Indian Ocean, especially Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra, 
and is sometimes found in Ethiopia. 

Elephas, Elephant.—The elephant surpasses all our terrestrial 
animals in size, and in sagacity lie is inferior only to man. Like 
the dog, he is susceptible of gratitude, and capable of attachment; 
he possesses the most astonishing strength, yet, when tamed, he 
submits to the will of his master, and is a pattern of fidelity and 
docility. Elephants have been seen fifteen feet high: their colour 
is an ash grey; and they have a trunk which they can shorten 
or lengthen, and with which they are able to pick up money from 
the ground, untie knots, and perform many things equally 
curious to the beholder. 

Order 3. —Fer/e. 

This order contains the animals of prey, and consists of 
several genera, all agreeing in having teeth evidently calculated for 
feeding on flesh. 

The genera of this order are,— Canis , including the dog, wolf, 
liyeena, fox, and jackal; Felis, the cat, lion, tiger, leopard, lynx, 
panther, &c.; Viverra , the weasel, ferret, polecat, civet &c. ; 
(Jrsus, the bear, badger, &c.; Didelphis, the opossum ; Macropus , 
the kangaroo ; Talpa , the mole ; and Erinaceus , the hedgehog. 

Canis. —The common Dog {canis familiaris) is, except the 
elephant, the most intelligent of all quadrupeds, and on no one 
can we depend for equal fidelity and attachment. He is obedient 
and attentive, and performs whatever he is ordered to do with 
alacrity. There are many kinds of dogs, but they all retain such 
a similarity, that it is perfectly easy to distinguish them from any 
other species. The principal are the bull-dog, the mastiff, the 
Newfoundland, the pointer, the greyhound, the spaniel, the hound, 
the shepherd’s dog, the lap-dog, the terrier, &e. 

In appearance the Wolf (canis lupus) very much resembles the 
dog, but in disposition no two animals can be more dissimilar, nor 
can any have a more decided antipathy to each other. The wolf 
is very ravenous and insatiable. He will not only attack beasts, 
but men, when pressed with hunger ; and if he finds himself too 
weak for a large animal, the female accompanies him. 

The artful disposition of the Fox {canis wipes) is well known, 
and he finds it a much easier method to provide himself with 
food by stratagem, than by encountering danger. He always makes 
choice of his abode near villages, where he can readily visit the 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


m 


farm yards, and feast on poultry; and as lie carries on his depre¬ 
dations in the night, he frequently kills and hides several fowls or 
geese more than he wants at that time, and fetches them away at 
another opportunity. 

The Jackall (canis aureus) very much resembles both the fox 
and wolf in make ; its colour is yellow, and on that account it has 
sometimes been called the golden wolf. 

The Hyaena (canis hycena) is a most furious and dangerous 
beast, and it is exceedingly difficult to tame it, however young it 
may be taken. It is something like the wolf, but more formidable 
anti courageous; and it will resist the attacks of the tiger with 
success, an.d defend itself against the lion. 

Felis. —This ferocious tribe is distinguished by their sharp and 
formidable claws, which are lodged in a sheath, and are capable of 
being extended or drawn in at pleasure. They lead a solitary and 
ravenous life, and never unite for mutual defence or support. 
They are carnivorous, and refuse vegetables, unless extremely 
pressed by hunger. 

The Cat (felis catus) is too well known to need a particular 
description. They are an active, cleanly race; their skin is soft, 
and their fur is naturally sleek and glossy. Wild cats are to be 
found in every quarter of the world; they are larger than the 
domestic ones, and much more formidable; their colour is a 
yellowish white, streaked with black and grey. 

The Lion (felis leo) is a species of the cat kind. His figure is 
noble and dignified, and his voice terrible. The face of the lion 
seems to indicate majesty, to which his large mane materially con¬ 
tributes ; he is styled the king of beasts, for no animal can conquer 
him. Although he is so amazingly powerful, the lion is too gene¬ 
rous in his nature to torture those in his power unnecessarily, 
and he has been frequently known to protect weaker animals from 
the fury of such as have pursued them. 

The Tiger (felis tigris) is one of the fiercest and one of the 
most beautiful of all quadrupeds; it is about the size of the lion, 
and is remarkable for the smoothness of its hair, which is of a 
yellowish brown, and for the jet black stripes with which it is 
marked. It is a native of various parts both of Asia and Africa. 

The Panther has the upper part of the body covered with spots, 
and the lower part striped.—The Ounce and hunting Leopard 
are trained for the chase in India and Persia, and their mode 
of seizing the antelope or other animal, is by creeping along 
unperceived, till they approach near enough to dart upon their 
prey. The Leopard is very similar to the three last-mentioned 
beasts ; its skin, however, is more beautiful, but in its nature it is 


510 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

equally cruel and ferocious.—The skin of the lynx is spotted, but 
its tail is much shorter than that of the leopard. 

Viverra, Weasel.—Animals of the weasel kind are known by 
the length and slenderness of their bodies. They are in general 
cruel, voracious, and cowardly. 

The common weasel is the smallest of this tribe, and is not more 
than seven inches long, and an inch and a half in height. It 
destroys young poultry, sucks eggs, and pursues rats and mice into 
their holes, where it soon kills them. 

The Ermine is rather longer than the weasel. The colour of the 
body is a light brown, but in the most northern parts of Europe 
it becomes perfectly white at the approach of winter, at which time 
its fur is deemed the most valuable of any. 

The other animals of this genus are the ferret, the pole-cat, the 
martin, the sable, the ichneumon, the squash, the slunk, the zouille, 
the genette, the civet, the glutton, and the suricate. The martin 
and sable have exceedingly fine skins ; and on that account they 
are killed by the hunters of Siberia and other cold countries. 

The Otter (genus Mustela of Linnaeus, but sometimes con¬ 
sidered as belonging to this genus) is about two feet long from the 
tip of the nose to its tail; the head and nose broad and flat; 
short neck, long body, and small eyes. It is very expert in catch¬ 
ing fish, on which it subsists. 

Ursus, Bear.—There are three sorts of bears ; the brown bear, 
the black bear, and the great Greenland, or white bear. The 
brown bear attacks and preys on other animals, destroying lambs, 
kids, &c.; the black bear confines itself almost entirely to vegetable 
food; but the white bear of Greenland is by far the largest, and 
yet the most timorous. The affection of these animals for their 
young has been noticed as truly wonderful. 

The Badger, a species of the bear genus (ursus meles), is a 
solitary, stupid animal, that seldom ventures far from its hole. It 
sleeps the greater part of its time ; but when roused by the pursuit 
of the dogs, makes a very vigorous resistance. 

Macropus, Kangaroo.—Of all the animals which the continent 
of Australasia has presented to our view, the platypus excepted, 
the kangaroo must be considered as the most extraordinary : its 
size, conformation, teeth, and other particulars, conspiring to 
render it a most interesting object to every naturalist. There are 
two species.—The great kangaroo was first discovered by Captain 
Cook’s people, while at Botany Bay, in New Holland, in 1770. 
In their native state these animals are said to feed in herds cf 
thirty or forty together, and one is generally observed to be stationed, 
as if apparently on the watch, at a distance from the rest.—The 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


511 


lesser kangaroo, or kangaroo rat, is about the size of a rabbit; the 
tail is long, tapering, hairy ; the structure of the hind feet per¬ 
fectly resembles that of the great kangaroo. 

Talpa, Mole.— These animals are formed for perforating the 
earth in the most expeditious manner. The head is long and 
provided with very strong muscles, which enable them to raise the 
earth at pleasure; the snout is much lengthened, and movable ; 
the hands are large, broad, and flat, armed with strong, flat, 
pointed claws, directed backwards, for throwing the earth behind 
them ; and the fore legs are very short and strong. They have 
no external ears, and their eyes are very small, and hidden in the 
fur. 

Erinaceus, Hedgehog.—This animal is about six or seven 
inches long, and is covered with prickles on the head, back, and 
sides ; but the nose, belly, and breast, are clothed with fine soft 
hair. 


Order 4.—Glires. 

The principal character of the animals composing this order 
consists in a pair of very conspicuous, strong, and lengthened teeth, 
placed close together in the front of both jaws. They have no 
canine teeth, but are furnished with grinders on each side. 

The principal genera are, Hijstrix , the porcupine; Castor , the 
beaver; Mus, the mouse and rat; Cavia , the guinea-pig; 
Arctomys , the marmot; Lepus , the hare; Sciurus , the squirrel; 
Myoxus , the dormouse. 

Hystrix. —The Porcupine is a very surprising animal, owing 
to the quills by which it is covered, and which render it ex¬ 
tremely formidable; but it is not true that they can discharge 
these quills, and inflict wounds at a distance, as some have asserted ; 
they are of great use in defending the porcupine from the attacks 
of other animals, particularly serpents, to whom it has the most 
decided enmity ; and these creatures never meet without a mortal 
engagement. 

Castor, Beaver.—This animal is easily distinguished from all 
quadrupeds by the peculiar appearance of its tail, which is of an 
oval form, nearly flat, and serves as a rudder, to direct its motion 
in the water. It has membranes between the toes on the hind 
feet only; the fore feet supply the place of hands, like those of 
the squirrel; and it is about two feet long and a foot high. In 
the summer the beavers assemble in great numbers, and construct 
large habitations, divided into small apartments, on the side of a 
river, which they do with suprising facility. With their teeth they 


512 


YOUNG man’s COMPANION. 


cut large pieces of wood, and they fix them in the ground, at a 
little distance from each other, placing smaller twigs between them ; 
they then fill up the cavities with clay, and cement the whole 
together by mixing and moistening it with water, which they 
perform with their tails. 

Mus, Mouse.—This genus comprises all the different species 
of rats and mice. They generally live in holes in the ground, are 
very swift, and able to climb trees. Their food is chiefly vege¬ 
table, which they seek in the night, keeping in their retreats 
during the day. 

Lei'US, Hare and Rabbit.—This genus approaches to the next 
order ( pecora ), and it has been supposed that the common hare 
ruminates. There is no animal more timid or inoffensive than the 
hare, yet no one has more persecutors. Dogs, cats, and all the 
weasel tribe continually annoy it; but man destroys more than 
all its other foes. The flesh of the hare is much esteemed by us, 
though the ancient Britons abhorred it. The rabbit resembles the 
hare, but its ears and hind legs are shorter. The colour of the 
wild rabbit is a dusky brown above, and whitish on the under 
parts. 

Sciurus, Squirrel.—The animals which compose this genus are 
remarkable for the liveliness of their disposition, the rapidity of 
their movements, and the general neatness and elegance of their 
appearance. The squirrel is smaller than the rabbit, and has 
a beautiful brushy tail, which it can spread so as to cover the 
whole body. It is generally seen leaping from one branch of a 
tree to another, or sitting on its hind legs, and using its fore paws 
in conveying nuts or acorns to its mouth. 

Order 5 —Pecoua. 

The leading character in this order is the total want of front 
teeth in the upper jaw. In the lower jaw there are six or eight 
frontteeth; the grinders, or side teeth, are usually pretty numerous, 
and such of the pecora as are furnished with horns, have no tusks 
or canine teeth; which, on the contrary, are conspicuous in such 
as are not furnished with horns. The pecora have the power of 
rumination. All the animals of this order are hoofed; and in 
the major part the hoof is divided into two principal parts, with the 
addition in many of two very small undivided hoofs or processes 
on each side, or rather behind the principal ones. The whole 
order, without an exception, feeds entirely on vegetable food. 

The genera are, Camelus, the camel, dromedary, and lama ; 
Giraffa , the giraffe, or cameleopard; Cerviis , the elk, or deer 




























































NA T U IS A Li HIS T ORK 


Class 1, Qiiadmipeds . 


x ooxoGY. 


C/ass 2, Birds . 



WILD OX. 


Class 3, Reptiles. 



GOLDEN EAGIE. 


Class 4, Fislies. 




Fig. 3. 


BOA CONSTRICTOR. 


Class 5, It iseets. 

S TAG BEETLE. 


Fig. 7. 


LANTERN ELY. 

































NATURAL HISTORY. 


515 - 

kind; Bos, the ox, buffalo, &c.; Moschus , the musk; Antilope , 
the antelope, and chamois; Oms, sheep ; and Capra , goats. 

Camelus, Camel.—This is so useful an animal to the Ara¬ 
bians that they are considered sacred by them; and without their 
assistance those people could neither traffic, travel, nor subsist. 
In Turkey, Persia, Arabia, and Egypt, commerce is entirely 
carried on by means of camels, no carriage being so speedy and 
reasonable in those countries. The Dromedary differs from the 
camel principally in the circumstance of having but one hump on 
the back, while the camel has two; and that in size and strength 
it is not equal to the latter. 

Cameleopardalis, Giraffe.—This animal exceeds in height 
all other quadrupeds, measuring, when full grown, nearly seventeen 
feet from the top of the head to the fore feet. It is an in¬ 
habitant of Africa, and is found chiefly in Ethiopia, and the 
internal parts of the country, being rarely met with near the 
coasts. It resides in the forests, where it lives by browsing on the 
branches of trees. It is only within the last few years that 
specimens of this magnificent animal have been sent to this 
country. 

Cervus, Deer.—Horns solid, covered while young with a hairy 
skin, growing from the top, naked, annual branched. Animals 
belonging to the deer tribe are extremely active and shy; and 
inhabit woods and sequestered situations. There are, in England, 
three kinds of deer; the stag, the fallow-deer, and the roe*buck. 
The other animals comprised in this genus are the elk and rein¬ 
deer ; the elk is the largest kind of deer, frequently the size of a 
horse, and inhabits the forests of North America and Asia. The 
rein-deer is a very useful animal to the Laplander. 

Bos, Ox.—Few animals are more widely diffused over the globe 
than the common ox ( bos taurus), see Plate Natural History , 
fig. 1. Under different names, distinguishing several varieties, 
it is found in a wild or domestic state throughout almost the whole 
of the old continent, in most of the European and Asiatic islands, 
and is very abundant in several parts of America. It seems 
capable of enduring equally the rigours of heat and cold, and in¬ 
habits the frozen as well as the most scorching climates. In this 
genus are also the Urus, or wild bull, chiefly found in Lithuania, 
and prodigiously large; the Bison, which differs from the bull, 
by having a hump between the shoulders and a long shaggy mane ; 
the Zebu, or the Barbary cow ; and the Buffalo, which is an ex¬ 
cessively strong and ferocious beast, and furnishes us with very 
superior kind of leather, justly famed for its thickness, softness, 
and impenetrability. 

3 u 


514 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Ovis, Sheep.— The common sheep, in its present domestic 
state, is of all animals the most harmless and inoffensive ; and is 
too well known to require a detail of its habits. There is no part 
of a sheep but what is in some way advantageous to mankind. 

Capra, Goat.—This animal approaches more nearly to the 
character of the sheep than any other ; but it is possessed of a 
greater share of instinct, and is stronger, swifter, and much more 
courageous. The goat is lively and playful, and delights in climb¬ 
ing the steepest mountains, for which nature has peculiarly fitted 
it, by forming the hoof in such a manner, that it can walk as securely 
on the ridge of a house as on level ground. 

Order 6 . — Bellu^:. 

These animals have front teeth in both jaws that are obtuse; 
their feet are armed with hoofs that are in some species entire, and 
in others subdivided. Most of them live entirely on vegetable food. 

This order comprises the following genera: Eqiius , the horse, 
ass, zebra; Hippopotamus; Tapir; and Sus, the hog kind, pec¬ 
cary, babryoussa, &c. 

Equus, Horse.—These animals are found wild in several parts 
of the globe. Large herds of them are occasionally seen in the 
southern parts of Siberia, in the great Mongolian deserts, and 
among the Kalkas to the north-west of China. In a domestic 
state the horse is found in almost every country of the world, ex¬ 
cept within the Arctic Circle. 

When very young, the Ass (equus asinus) is sprightly, and 
tolerably handsome ; but he soon loses these qualities, and becomes 
dull, stupid, and headstrong. In Spain and some other countries 
they are much more elegant and tractable. Wild asses are fierce, 
swift, and formidable ; and when pursued, will defend themselves 
with courage.—A Mule is a very hardy and useful animal, and is 
of a mixed breed, between the horse and the ass, both of which it 
somewhat resembles. The Zebra is the most beautiful, though the 
wildest animal in nature. Its head is rather large, its back straight, 
its legs finely placed, and its tail tufted at the end. Zebras are 
so very scarce, that they are never seen in this country except in 
collections of wild beasts. 

Hippopotamus. —The head of this animal is of an enormous 
size, and the mouth extremely wide. The skin is very thick and 
strong, and of a dusky colour. The length of a male has been 
found to be seventeen feet, the circumference of the body fifteen, 
and the height nearly seven. The hippopotamus resides chiefly at 
the bottom of lakes and rivers, and depends on fish for subsistence, 
which these animals catch with great celerity. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 


515 


Sus, Hog.— 1 his genus is allied to the pecora by its cloven 
hoofs, and to the ferae, in some degree, by its teeth ; yet differing 
widely from both in many respects. The internal structure of the 
feet also approaches to that of the digitated quadrupeds, 
while that of some other parts is peculiar to this genus alone. 
) t may, therefore, be allowed to form at once a link between the 
cloven-footed, the whole-hoofed, and the digitated quadrupeds. 
1 he wild boar is, in fact, the hog in a wild state ; and the difference 
observable in them, arises from the long domestication of the tame 
hog. The-wild boar has the head and muzzle larger and stronger 
than the hog, the tusks longer, and the hair, called' bristles, always 
black ; he is very ferocious and unmanageable, and will attack 
dogs, horses, and even men. 

Order 7.—Pinnata. 

The pinnated mammalia are those in which the divisions or toes 
of the feet are connected by webs ; enabling the animals, whose 
principal residence is in the waters, to swim with far greater facility 
than any other quadrupeds ; while, on the contrary, they walk with 
much greater difficulty. 

There are two genera :— Phoca , the seal; and Trick ecus, in¬ 
cluding the morse or walrus, and the manati or sea-cow. 

Phoca, Seal.—This tribe pass much of their time either 
on the sea shore, on insulated rocks, or on the ice in the frozen 
seas, assembling in these places in great numbers, especially at the 
time when the females bring forth their young. The seal has a 
round head, broad nose, and large sparkling eyes. Seals are 
caught for the use of their skins, and the oil which their fat 
yields. 

Tkichecus, Walrus.—This is a very large animal, growing 
sometimes to the length of eighteen feet, and so thick as to mea¬ 
sure twelve feet about the middle of the body. 

The walrus is distinguished from the seal by having two long 
tusks. 

Order 8.—Cete, or Cetacea. 

T1 lis order comprises the cetaceous mammalia, or whale tribe. 
These cannot, in strict propriety, be called quadrupeds, since they 
are only furnished with two feet, which have the appearance of thick 
fins, while the tail is merely muscular and tendinous ; neither are 
they in any respect like fishes, except in their residence in the 
water. But since the. whole interior structure agrees with that 
of the mammalia; since they have lungs and breathe; since they 


I 





516 YOUNG man's companion. 

have warm blood, and a heart resembling in conformation that of 
quadrupeds ; and, in particular, since they produce and nourish 
their young in the same manner ; it follows very clearly that they 
can, with propriety, be ranked in no other class of animals than the 
Linnaean mammalia. 

The genera are, Bcilama , proper whales ; Physeter , spermaceti 
whales ; Delphinus , the dolphin, porpoise, and grampus; and 
Monodon , the narwhale, sea-unicorn, &c. 

Balden a, Whale.—The head is very long, and large in pro¬ 
portion, laterally compressed, and diminishing towards the beak. 
The jaws are nearly equal, and without teeth ; but instead of teeth, 
the upper jaw is furnished on both sides with horny plates, trans¬ 
versely disposed. The lower jaw is anteriorly of an oval or 
roundish form, broader than the upper jaw, and having a furrow on 
the margin for receiving the horny plates. The largest animal of 
this genus, and indeed in the whole creation, is the great Greenland 
whale, ( balcvna mysticetus .) It usually measures upwards of 
sixty feet in length ; its fins are from five to eight feet long, and 
its tail is twenty-four feet broad. The tongue alone produces 
several hogsheads of blubber. The substance called whalebone is 
taken from the upper jaw of this stupendous animal. 

Physeter, Cachalot, or Spermaceti Whale.—The body is 
naked, sometimes oval, and sometimes in the form of a length¬ 
ened cone. The head is very thick, anteriorly truncated, and 
occupying nearly one-half or one-third of the whole length of 
the body. There is only one breathing hole, which is placed 
on the snout. The jaws are unequal. 

Delphinus, the Dolphin.—The body is naked, oval, or of 
an oblong conical shape, of a blue colour, inclining to black. 
The head is conical, diminishing gradually towards the snout. 
The breathing hole, which is on the top ef the head, is in form 
of a crescent, the horns of which are directed towards the snout. 
This genus comprises the porpoise, the dolphin, and the grampus. 

Class II.— Aves, Birds. 

The skeleton or bony frame of birds is, in general, of a 
lighter nature than in quadrupeds, and is calculated for the 
purpose of flight. The bones of the wings are similar to those 
of the four legs in quadrupeds, but the termination is in three 
joints or fingers only, of which the exterior one is very short. 

Birds are divided by Linnaeus into six orders :— Accipitres , 
Piece, Passer es, Gallince , Gralia?, Anseres. 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


517 


Order 1.— A cci pitres. 

This order consists of birds of prey, feeding entirely on 
animal food. The bill is more or less curved, strong, and often 
covered round the base by a naked membrane called a cere; and 
on each side, towards the tip, is a projection forming a kind of 
tooth, and serving to tear the prey. 

The principal genera are, Vultur , the vulture ; Falco , the 
falcon, eagle, hawk, and kite; Strix , the owl; and Lanins , the 
shrike, or butcher-bird. 

Vultur, Vulture.—The birds of this genus are distinguished 
from eagles and hawks, by being gregarious, by the comparative 
heaviness of their flight, and by their living on carrion. The 
aquiline vulture is a large bird of prey, having a naked head and 
neck, and a black hooked beak. In its appearance it is disgusting, 
but it is nevertheless of the greatest service to mankind, in those 
hot countries where it resides, by devouring the remains of animal 
substances, which would otherwise be left to putrefy. 

Falco, Falcon.—This includes the eagle, hawk, and kite. 
They are distinguished from vultures in several essential respects, 
besides their general habits already alluded to. The bill in the 
vulture is longer, and more straight, being only hooked at the 
apex ; in the falcon the curve of the bill commences nearly at 
the base; the head of the vulture is also bare of feathers, and 
the neck retractile. Falcons are dispersed throughout the globe. 
Of this genus the Eagle is the largest and most noble. It is about * 
three feet in length, and the extent of its wings is upwards of 
seven feet. This bird may justly be styled the king of the 
feathered race ; and, like the lion among quadrupeds, is remarkable 
for courage and magnanimity. Fig. 2, Plate Natural History, 
represents the golden eagle ( falco cryscetus) one of the largest 
and most beautiful species. It is three feet and a half long, eight 
feet across the wings, and weighs about twelve pounds. 

Strix, Owl.—The birds of this genus fly abroad by night, 
and prey on small birds, mice, and rats : their eyes are weak by 
day, and generally closed. Their sense of hearing is very acute, 
by means of a particular membrane at the opening of the external 
ear. 

Lanius, Shrike, or Butcher-bird.—The birds of this genus are 
dipersed throughout most parts of the globe: they are generally 
of a noisy, restless, and quarrelsome disposition ; they prey on 
all smaller birds as well as insects. After pouncing upon their 
destined victim, which they usually seize upon in a defenceless 
state, while young, and in the nest, they bear it away to some 


518 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


thorny bush, and by the dint of dexterity force it upon one of 
the stoutest and sharpest spines ; after which they proceed to 
tear the yet living creature into pieces. 

Order %.— Pic.e. 

Under this order are included all birds of the pie kind. The 
bill is commonly of a slightly compressed and convex form. 
Their body is slender, and their voices hoarse ; they may be 
known also by being noisy and chattering. 

The principal genera are, Psittacus , the parrot kind ; Picus , 
the woodpecker ; Paradisea , birds of paradise ; Alcedo , the 
kingfisher; Cuculus, the cuckoo ; Trochilus , the humming-bird ; 
Cormis , the crow, raven, jackdaw, magpie, and jay. 

Psittacus, Parrot.—This splendid and numerous genus is 
chiefly confined to the warmer regions of the old and new con¬ 
tinents, or within the limits of the tropics ; none being natives 
of Europe. They are remarkable for their active and imitative 
disposition. 

Picus, Woodpecker,—-‘The birds of this genus live principally 
upon insects, to obtain which they climb trees, and are perpetually 
in search of those crevices in which their food is lodged. These 
insects they transfix with their missile and daggered tongue, which 
is then, by an almost invisible motion, withdrawn wholly into the 
mouth. 

Cuculus, Cuckoo.—The common cuckoo extends throughout 
most parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It comes to us early 
in the spring, and generally leaves by the end of July; though 
the females may sometimes remain a little later, till they have 
deposited all their eggs. They migrate from the north of Europe 
at the close of summer, and pass the winter in the warmer parts 
of Africa. 

Coitvus, Crow.— Most of the species in this genus are found 
widely dispersed over every part of the globe. They are prolific, 
social, and very clamorous; building on trees ; laying about six 
eggs ; living on grain, seeds, insects, &c. 

The Kaven is the largest bird of this genus; its plumage is of 
a bluish black colour, and it is to be found in most European 
countries, and also in North America. 

Order 3. — Pass ekes. 

This order consists of birds of the sparrow kind. The bill is 
formed so as to operate in the manner of a forceps ; their limbs 
are rather weak ; their flight is quick, with a frequent repetition 




NATURAL HISTORY - . 


51 9 


of the movement of the wings; and they chiefly build in trees 
or shrubs ; they excel in the art of constructing their nests. 

The principal genera are, Columba , the pigeon ; Tardus , the 
thrush, blackbird ; Motacilla, the nightingale, red-breast, wren, 
water-wagtail; Hirundo , swallows, martins, &c ; Alauda , the 
lark ; and Fringilla , finches, canary-bird, linnet, sparrow, &c. 

Columba, Pigeon.—The columbine family are generally of 
an elegant form, of beautiful varying plumage, and of sociable, 
gentle, and endearing manners; and are so strictly monogamous, 
that the first connexion which they form is usually the only one 
which they contract in the course of their life. 

Motacilla, Nightingale.—Though differing considerably in 
their manners, these birds are ranked by Gmclin under one genus, 
of which he enumerates nearly two hundred species. Most of 
these birds feed on insects ; a few are gregarious ; and in the 
winter migrate to warmer climates.—The nightingale is a small 
migratory bird, of a rusty brown colour, generally arriving in this 
country in the month of April, and leaving it in September, 
retiring into a warmer climate during winter. 

Hirundo, Swallow.—The birds of this genus are readily 
distinguished, not only by their structure, but by their twittering 
voice, and their manner of life. They fly with great rapidity, 
seldom walk, and perform all their functions either on the wing 
or sitting. By means of their wide mouth they easily catch their 
food in the air, or on the surface of the water. Naturalists have 
been much divided in their opinion in regard to their migration ;* 
but it is supposed that the far greater number repair to warmer 
climates in winter. 

Alauda, Lark.—-There are various species of lark, as the sky¬ 
lark, tit-lark, wood-lark, &c.—The sky-lark is the most common in 
this country, and is usually found in the open and upland culti¬ 
vated districts in which corn abounds. The nest is placed on the 
ground, among grass or corn, and is formed of vegetable stalks, 
and lined with fine dry grass. Sky-larks are easily tamed, and 
become so familiar as to eat off the table, and even alight on the 
hand. The lark becomes tuneful early in spring, and continues 
so during the summer. 

Fringilla, Finches.—This numerous and active tribe of 
birds is very generally dispersed over the world, but they are 
most common in warm climates.—The chaffinch is rather less 
than the house-sparrow. The goldfinch is rather less than the 
chaffinch, being little more than five inches in length, and nine 
inches in stretch of wing. To this genus also belong the canary 
bird, linnet, sparrow, &c. 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


5 SO 


Order 4. — Galling. 

This order consists of birds of the poultry kind, including all 
those which are allied in habit or general appearance, as well as 
in their mode of life, to the common domestic fowl. 

The principal genera are, Tetrao , grouse, quail, partridge, &c. ; 
Meleagris , the turkey ; Phasianus, the pheasant, including the 
common domestic fowl; Paw , the peacock ; Otis , the bustard ; 
and Struthio , the ostrich. 

Tetrao. —The grouse chiefly inhabits the colder regions. 
Partridges and quails are less in size, have a short tail, and 
their nostrils covered above with a callous prominent margin. 
They inhabit the temperate and even the warmer climates. 

Meleagris, Turkey.—This bird is upwards of three feet and 
a half long. It inhabits America, and is very generally domesti¬ 
cated in this country. In a wild state it lives in woods, and 
feeds on nuts, acorns, and insects. 

Phasianus, Pheasant.—The females produce many young 
ones at a brood, and take care of them for some time, leading 

7 . • m 7 O 

them abroad, and pointing out food for them. The nests are 
formed on the ground. 

Pavo, Peacock.—Head with a compressed crest; spurs soli¬ 
tary. It would be in vain to attempt to give an adequate de¬ 
scription of the beauties of this well known species. Its head is 
adorned with a tuft of the most exquisite green mixed with gold.. 
But the distinguishing character of this bird is its train, which 
rises just above the tail, and when erected, forms a fan of the 
most resplendent hues. 

Struthio, Ostrich.—The ostrich is the largest bird, and 
bears the nearest affinity of any to quadrupeds. It is seven feet 
high from the top of the head to the ground; and at a 
distance might be mistaken for a camel. It inhabits the sandy 
deserts of Arabia; and there is no place, however barren, that 
is not capable of supplying it with provisions. 

Order 5. — Orally. 

The birds of this order are called waders. The bill is general] y 
rather long, the legs lengthened, and the thighs often bare of 
feathers above the knee: they frequent rivers and marshy places. 

The principal genera are, Ardea, the crane, stork, heron, and 
bittern ; Platalea r the spoon-bill; Cliaradrius , the snipe and 
plover tribe; and Phcenicopterus , the flamingo. 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


521 


Ardea, Crane, Stork, &c.—The birds of this numerous genus 
liave long feet and necks, and live on amphibious animals and fishes. 
They were formerly not uncommon in the fenny districts of 
England ; but they are now seldom seen with us. The common 
heron is dispersed over most of the countries of the world. It is 
a great destroyer both of sea and fresh-water fish, being enabled, 
by the great length of its legs, to wade into some depth of water, 
where standing motionless till some of the finny tribe approach, 
it darts its bill into them in an instant. 

Ph.enicopterus, Flamingo.—The birds of this genus combine 
the characters of the anseres with those of the grallse. They have 
the neck and legs long; the bill strong and thick. 

Order 6.—Anseres. 

This order consists of such birds as have very strongly or con¬ 
spicuously webbed feet, and are, from their general structure, 
calculated for swimming. The legs are short, and body stout, and 
muscular. Their food consists of fish and other water-animals, 
and frequently of water-plants. 

The principal genera are Larus , the gull; Procellaria , the 
petrel; Diomedia , the albatross, or man-of-war bird ; Pelecanus , 
the pelican, cormorant, &c. Anas., the swan, duck, goose, &c.; 
Aptenodytes , the penguin. 

Larus, Gull.—The birds of this genus are very widely diffused 
throughout the globe, but the far greater number are natives only 
of the northern regions of America and Europe. Many of the 
species inhabit the British isles, residing on our shores the whole 
year. 

Diomedea, Albatross.—This splendid bird is larger than the 
swan, measuring from three to four feet in length ; and its gene¬ 
ral expansion between the wings, when opened and stretched out, 
from ten to fifteen feet. Albatrosses are very abundant in many 
parts without the tropics, both to the north and southward, and 
are found in every temperate southern latitude as far as those 
regions have been yet explored. These birds are often caught by 
means of a hook baited with a fish. 

Anas. —This is a very numerous genus, including swans, 
geese, and ducks. The tame swan is the largest of all British birds, 
and is distinguished from the wild swan by its being larger, and 
by the base of the bill being black instead of yellow. They form 
their nests of grass, and generally among reeds near the water. 
The eggs are large and white, and six or eight in number. 


3 x 


i 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 



Class III. —Amphibia. 

This class includes all animals who live with equal facility on 
land or in water, and some others which do not exactly conform 
to this description. They are to be distinguished from several of 
the mammalia, described under Class I., as the seal, beaver, &c. 
(which have been popularly termed amphibious,) inasmuch as their 
anatomical structure is totally different. The amphibia, properly 
so called, which compose this class, have all cold and white blood, 
instead of warm and red, as is the case with the mammalia. The 
lungs differ widely in appearance from those of other animals. 
Many of them are possessed of a higher degree of productive 
power, and will be furnished with new feet, tails, &c. wdien by 
any accident those parts have been destroyed. 

The amphibia are divided into reptilia, containing the footed 
amphibia, as frogs, lizards, &c.; and the serpentes, or footless 
amphibia, including the whole serpent tribe. 

Order 1 . — Reptilia. 

In the Reptilia there are four genera: Testudo, the tortoise, 
turtle, &c. Rana, the frog, toad, &c. Draco , the dragon, or 
flying lizard ; and Lacerta , lizards, the crocodile, chameleon, newt, 
salamander, &c. 

Testudo, Tortoise.—Some of the species belonging to this 
genus are natives of the ocean ; some are confined to the land, or 
to fresh v^ater. This introduced a natural division into land and 
sea tortoises. 

The land tortoise is found from one to four or five feet in length, 
and from five to eighteen inches across the back. The head, which 
it can at pleasure protrude beyond or draw within the shell, re¬ 
sembles that of the serpent kind. The tail is long and scaly, and 
the exterior covering of the animal is composed of several pieces 
of shell joined together in the firmest and most compact manner, 
and somewhat resembling the tiling of a house. 

The sea-tortoise, or turtle, comprehends a variety of species, 
some of which are neither palatable nor wholesome, while others 
are celebrated in the annals of epicurism. 

The green turtle is that which is held in such high esteem for 
the table. 

Ran a, Frog.—This genus has been divided by naturalists into 
three sections. 1. The ranse, or frogs, have light active bodies, 
furnished with strong limbs, performing their motions by leaping. 
2. The hylae, or tree-frogs, have slender limbs, with soft tubercles 



NATURAL HISTORY. 


on the toes, which enable them to adhere to smooth surfaces, such 
us the leaves of trees, on which many of them reside. 3. The 
bufones, or toads, which have large heavy bodies, thick short limbs, 
and a slow crawling motion. The frog and toad are universally 
known; and the frequent opportunities which every one has of 
viewing them, preclude the necessity of description. 

The erroneous opinion of toads containing and ejecting poison, 
has caused many cruelties to be exercised upon this harmless, and, 
undoubtedly, useful tribe. Toads have been inhumanly treated, 
merely because they are ugly ; and frogs have been abused because 
they are like them. 

Lacerta, Lizard.—The numerous genus lacerta includes a 
variety of animals which, although they possess many characters in 
common, yet exhibit considerable differences in structure and ex¬ 
ternal form, as well as in their economy and habits. On this ac¬ 
count this genus has been divided by some naturalists into several 
distinct genera: — !. Crocodiles. 2. Guanas, and other lizards. 
3. Cordyles, with denticulated, and sometimes spiny scales. 4. 
Lizards proper. 5. Chameleons, with granulated skin, large head, 
long missile tongue, and cylindric tail. 6. Geckos, with granulated 
or tuberculated skin. 7. Scinks, with smooth, fish-like scales. 8. 
Salamander, Newts, or Efts. 9. Snake lizards, with extremely long 
bodies, very short legs, and minute feet. The crocodile is a native 
both of Africa and America, and frequently grows to the size of 
twenty feet in length, and five feet in circumference. This fierce 
and formidable creature spares neither man nor beast. 

Order 2. —Serpentes. 

The Serpents are generally distinguishable from the rest of the 
amphibia by their total want of feet. One of the most singular 
properties of the serpent tribe is that of casting their skin from time 
to time. When this takes place, so complete is the spoil or coat- 
skin, that even the external coat of the eyes themselves makes a 
part of it. Among the poisonous serpents, the fangs or poisonous 
teeth are furnished with a small hole or slit near the tip. Above 
the root of each fang is a glandular reservoir of poison, which, in the 
act of biting, is pressed into the tube of the tooth, and discharged 
into the wound through the hole near the tip. 

The most important genera are, Crotalus , the rattlesnake; Boa , 
immense serpents of India and Africa ; Coluber, the viper, common 
snake, &c.; Jnquis , the blindworm. 

Crotalus, Rattlesnake.—The animals of this genus inhabit 
America, where they prey on the smaller birds, lizards, and insects. 


524 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


The whole genus is furnished with poisonous fangs, placed in two 
longitudinal rows in the upper part or roof of the mouth. The 
rattle consists of a number of pieces, inserted into each other, alike 
in shape and size, hollow, and of a thin, elastic, brittle substance, 
similar to the exterior part of the scuta. 

Boa. —This genus of serpents is very numerous, and contains 
some species which are remarkable for their huge dimensions. 
Their immense size has rendered them the objects of terror 
rather than of observation to mankind ; while the quantity of food 
requisite for their sustenance, has precluded their multiplication 
within a limited range of country. Taken collectively, they ex¬ 
ceed in magnitude all the other tribes of serpents. 

Of the boa genus, the boa constrictor , (fig. 8, Plate Natural 
History ,) is the largest and most terrible; but is not poisonous. 
It is often thirty feet long, and of a proportionable thickness; its 
colour is of a dusky white, variously spotted ; its scales are round, 
small and smooth. When it attacks any animal, it raises itself 
upright on its tail; and there have been many extraordinary facts 
related of its powers, as the destruction of buffaloes, tigers, &c. 

Coluber, Snake, Viper, &c.—The species of this genus are 
numerous, and diffused over various parts of the world. The 
poisonous kinds constitute about one-fifth of the whole. The 
common viper attains to the length of two, or even three feet. 
The ground colour of the body is a dingy yellow, deeper in the 
female than the male. It inhabits Europe and Siberia, and is by 
no means uncommon in Great Britain, being the only poisonous 
animal in the island. 

Class IV.— Pisces, Fishes. 

Like the amphibious animals, the heart of fishes consists of but 
one chief cavity, and their blood is far less warm than that of quadru¬ 
peds and birds. The organs of breathing in fishes are called gills, 
and consist of a vast number of blood vessels. The generality of 
fishes are covered with scales, of various forms" and size in the 
different tribes; which scales are analogous to the hair of qua¬ 
drupeds, and the feathers of birds. The greater number of fishes 
are oviparous, producing innumerable soft eggs, usually known by 
the name of spawn. 

In the Linnsean arrangement of fishes, the under or belly fin* 
are termed ventral, and are considered analogous to the feet in 
quadrupeds; and it is from the presence or absence of these fins 
that the following divisions are instituted. 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


525 


Order 1 . — Apodes. 

This order consists of footless fishes, or those entirely destitute 
of ventral fins. They approach very near to the amphibia, and 
some of them even resemble the serpent tribe. 

The principal genera are Murcena , the eel kind; Gymnotus , 
the electric eel; Anarrhichas , the sea-wolf; and Xiphias , the 
sword-fish. 

Mumna. —The common eel includes a variety of species. It 
frequents the fresh waters, the ponds, ditches, and rivers of almost 
every country. It is a singular fish in regard to many particulars 
of its natural history, and in some respects bears a great resem¬ 
blance to the serpent tribe. 

Xiphias, Sword-fish.—The head is flattish, and the mouth 
wide, both jaws terminating in a point, but the upper stretched to 
a great distance beyond the lower, forming what is called the 
sword. 


Order 2 .— Jugulares. 

This consists of jugular fishes, or those which have the ventral 
or belly-fins placed more forward than the pectoral or breast-fins. 

The principal genera are Gadus , the cod, haddock, whiting, 
ling, &c. ; Blennius , the blenny; and Callionymus , the dragonet. 

Gadus, the Cod.—This is a most extensive genus, including a 
variety of well-known and useful fishes ; and is so commonly seen 
in our markets, that little need be said of it by way of description. 
The common cod, gadus morhua , (fig. 4,) measures from two to 
five feet in length, is of a cinereous colour, with yellowish spots 
above, and white below. This valuable fish is found in the northern 
parts of the world in immense shoals, yielding food and wealth to 
large districts of country. The coasts off Cape Breton, Nova 
Scotia, New England, and above all, the banks of Newfoundland, 
are its principal places of resort; in the latter place an extensive 
fishery is established. 

Order 3 .— Thoracia. 

The thoracic fishes have the ventral fins situated immediately 
below the pectoral ones. In this order are comprehended upwards 
of two hundred and twenty species, most of them furnishing a 
delicious supply to our tables. 

The principal genera are Coryphcena , the dorado; Zeus , the 


526 YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 

dory; Pleuronectes , the flounder, plaice, dab, holibut, sole, turbot, 
&c.; Perea, perch ; Scomber , the mackerel, bonito, tunny ; and 
Mullus, the mullet. 

CokypHjENa. —The dorado is an inhabitant of the tropical 
climates, and at once the most active and the most beautiful of 
the finny race. It is about six feet long; its back is all ovei 
enamelled with spots of a bluish green and silver colour; its 
tail and fins are of a golden hue. 

Scomber, Common Mackerel.—The ordinary length of this fish 
is from twelve to sixteen inches, though it has sometimes been 
found of a much greater size. Its elegant shape and beautiful 
colouring are too well known to need description, and its qualities 
as an edible fish have been long duly appreciated. 

Order 4. — Abdominales. 

The fishes of this order have the ventral fins placed below the 
pectoral ones, and chiefly inhabit fresh water. 

The principal genera are, Exocoetas , the flying-fish ; Salmo, 
the salmon, trout, smelt, char, grayling ; Esox , the pike; Clupea , 
the herring, sprat, shad; Cyprinus , the carp, tench, gold-fish, 
minnow, &c. 

Salmo. —The salmon is a fish that may stand in the first rank 
in regard to utility. It appears to be chiefly, or perhaps wholly 
confined to the northern climates, for it is unknown in the Medi¬ 
terranean, although it is diffused as far north as Greenland, and is 
also found on the coast of Kamstchatka. Although the salmon 
inhabits the ocean, it ascends the rivers to deposit its spawn in 
security, at a great distance from their efflux. These fishes are 
often taken in the Rhine as high as Basle, and even ascend to the 
sources of the rapid rivers of Lapland. 

Clupea. —The herring is universally known ; the high northern 
latitudes appear to be its native regions; it is there in the greatest 
abundance, and the tropic ocean which surrounds the pole seems 
to be the cradle of the species. 

Order 5. — Cartilaginej. 

The cartilaginous fishes differ from the rest of the fish tribe 
in having a cartilaginous or sinewy, instead of a bony skeleton, 
and in being destitute of ribs. They are divided into two parts ; 
first, such as have no gill-cover, as Petromyzon , the lamprey; 
Raia , the skate, torpedo, &c.; Squalus , the shark, saw-fish, &c.; 
Lophius , the sea-devil and frog-fish; Calistes, the file-fish :—second, 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


ft 07 

i 


such as have a gill-cover ; of which the principal genera are, Acci- 
penser , the sturgeon; Ostracion, the trunk-fish; Diodon , the 
porcupine-fish ; and Syngnathus , the pipe-fish. 

Squalus. —The shark is of all the inhabitants of the deep the 
fiercest, the most formidable, and the most voracious. It com¬ 
prises several varieties, and the smallest of the kind are said to 
prey on fishes very far superior in size. The mouth and throat 
are enormously capacious, so-that it is capable of swallowing a 
man without difficulty. Its furniture of teeth is still more terrible, 
and exhibits a most formidable apparatus of destruction. 

The saw-fish, squalus pristis , (see fig. 5,) is so called from the 
form of its mouth, which resembles a large-toothed saw. 

Accipenser. —The sturgeon constitutes another distinct 
genus. It is long, pentagonal, and covered with five rows of large 
bony knobs, one on the back, and two on each side, with a number 
of fins to promote its velocity in swimming. The sturgeon, when 
pickled, is well known, and greatly esteemed throughout all 
Europe. 


Class V.— Insecta, Insects. 

Insects are distinguished from other animals by their being 
furnished with several feet, never fewer than six, and sometimes 
with many more ; by their breathing, not through lungs, but by 
spiracles or breathing holes, situated at certain distances along 
each side of the body; and lastly, by the head being furnished 
with a pair of antennae, or jointed horns, which are extremelv 
various in the different tribes. The first state in which the gene¬ 
rality of insects appear is that of an egg. From this is hatched 
the animal in its second state, in which it is called the caterpillar, 
or grub. The insect in this state is called the larva, or mask, 
being a mask or disguise of the animal in its usual form. The 
larva differs in its appearance according to the tribe to which it 
belongs. Its next state is that of a chrysalis, or pupa. The 
pupa at length emerges the complete insect, in its perfect form, 
from which it can never after change, nor can it receive any 
further increase of growth. 

Insects feed on a variety of substances ; there are few things 
either in the vegetable or animal kingdoms which are not con¬ 
sumed by some species of them. The leaves, flowers, fruit, and 
even the ligneous parts of vegetables, afford nourishment to a 
very numerous class ; animal bodies, both dead and alive, even 
man himself, are preyed on by many of them. 

Insects are divided into seven orders coleoptera, hemiptera , 


528 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


lepidoptera , neuroptera , liymenoptera , diptera , and aptera. These 
terms are taken from Greek words descriptive of the construction 
of the wings. 


Order 1.—Coleopteiia. 

These insects have a hollow, horny case, called elytra, under 
which the wings are folded, when not in use. In most insects of 
this class, the elytra cover the abdomen entirely, in others but 
partially. 

Among the genera are, Scarabceus , the beetle ; Lucanus , the 
stag-beetle; Coccinella , the lady-bird; Lampyris , the glow¬ 
worm ; Meloe , the Spanish-fly ; and Forficula , the ear-wig. 

Scarab.eus, Beetle.—The larvse or grubs of this genus have 
six feet, and a body composed of annular segments, furnished 
with hairs. They live chiefly undef ground, or in dung, on 
which they frequently feed. The Hercules beetle is one of the 
most remarkable; it measures sometimes five or six inches in 
length ; and from the largeness of the size of all its parts, affords 
an admirable example of the characters of the genus. 

Lucanus, the stag-beetle (see fig. 6,) is the largest coleop¬ 
terous insect to be met with in England. It feeds on decayed 
oak. The larva is white and very thick, with head and feet of a 
rusty colour. 

A great number of other genera of coleopterous insects have 
been described, as inhabiting different parts of England, which 
are little known, except to the scientific naturalist. Among those 
which are generally known, and which belong to this order, may 
be mentioned the lady-bird, ( coccinella ) ,* the diamond-beetle, 
{curculid) ; the glow-worm, ( lampyris noctiluca ) ,* the blister-fly, 
(lytta 'cesicatorice); and the ear-wig, ( forficula ). 

Order 2 .—Hemiptera. 

This order consists of half-winged insects ; the wing-sheaths 
are tough or leathery at their upper part, and soft or membrana¬ 
ceous at the lower; and the real or under wings are often of 
great size, and plaited longitudinally in the manner of a fan. 

This order includes the following genera: — Blatta, the cock¬ 
roach ; Gryllus , the locust and grasshopper; Fulgora , the 
lanthorn-fly ; and Gimex , the bug, &c. 

Gryllus, Cricket.—This genus is so extensive, that it was 
divided by Linnseus into several sections.—-The mole cricket 
frequents gardens and cultivated grounds, both of Europe and 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


529 


America, where it burrows below the ground, and is very de¬ 
structive ; eating and destroying the roots of plants.-—The house 
cricket wanders about during the whole night, keeping a continual 
chirping, especially before rain. Arsenic, or the root of the wild 
carrot, mixed up into a paste with flour, is sometimes used to 
poison them ; but they are often spared, from an opinion among 
the vulgar, that their presence in any house is the cause of good, 
fortune.—The Locust ( gryllus migratorius ) is not much unlike 
our large grasshoppers in form, and is about two inches and a 
half in length, with a brownish body, blue legs, and wings of a 
yellowish brown, spotted with black ; they are very common in 
some parts of the East, and at times do incredible mischief by 
destroying the produce of the fields and gardens. 

Fulgora, Lantern-fly, (fig. 7.)—This insect emits a very 
bright light from the prominent part on its forehead, of which 
travellers are said to avail themselves; two or three of them, 
fixed on the end of a stick, affording them sufficient light to 
prosecute their journey. 

Cimex, Bug.—Most bugs have a bad smell; all of them, 
except the redumi , feed on the juice of plants, and all of them, 
without exception, on the juices of animals, particularly of the 
softer insects, which they suck by means of their snout. 

Order 3.—Lepidoptera. 

This includes the whole tribe of moths and butterflies. The 
powder or down on the wings of these insects has been considered 
as composed of a kind of feathers; but in reality it is composed 
of a kind of very minute scales, which differ in size and form in 
the different species, as well as on different parts of the same 
species. * . 

The order has been divided into two extensive genera:— 
Papilio , the butterfly. Sphinx and Phalxena , moths. 

Papilio, the Butterfly.—The larvae are universally known by 
the name of caterpillars, and are extremely various in their forms 
and colours. In consequence of the prodigious number of 
species of this beautiful tribe, Linnaeus has divided the whole 
into sections, instituted from the habit or general appearance, 
and from the distribution of the colour of the wings.—The first 
consists of Equites, or Knights , which are distinguished by the 
shape of their upper wings.—The second division consists of 
Heliconii , which have narrow and perfectly entire wings, frequently 
bare, the upper ones oblong, the under ones very short.—The 
third, of Parnasii , with wings perfectly entire, the upper pair being 

3 Y 


530 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


rounded.—The fourth, of Danai , with wings perfectly entire.—- 
The fifth, of Nymphales , with wings notched.—The sixth, of 
Plebeii , which are commonly smaller than the preceding kinds. 

Phalena, Moth.—Moths fly abroad only in the evening, 
have their antennae composed of many articulations, and com¬ 
monly pectinated in one or both sexes. They feed chiefly on 
the nectarious juice of flowers. The larva is active, commonly 
smooth, and more or less cylindrical, and feeds on the leaves of 
plants. The pupa remains torpid, is generally cylindrical, some¬ 
times pointed before, sometimes at both ends, and in most instances 
covered with a follicle.—The silk-worm ( phalama mori) is an 
insect resembling a caterpillar, and produces that ornament of 
our dress, so much admired, called silk. 

Order 4.— Neuroptera. 

This order consists of such as have four large wings, furnished 
with very conspicuous nerves, fibres, or ramifications dispersed 
over the whole wing. 

O 

The principal genera are, Libellula , the dragon-fly; Ephemera , 
the may-fly, or trout-fly, &c. 

Libellula, Dragon-fly.—This is an extremely ravenous 
tribe, and are generally seen hovering over stagnant waters. 

Ephemera, May-fly.—These short-lived animals are found 
every where about waters in the summer, and in their perfect 
state seldom live above a day, during which time they perform 
all the functions of life. 

Order 5. — Hymenoptera. 

These insects have four wings, but not fibrous like the former 
order. They generally possess a sting, or piercer, which in some is 
innocent; but in others it is calculated for a discharge of a highly 
acrimonious or poisonous juice, as in wasps and bees. 

The principal genera are, Vespa, the wasp and hornet; Apis , 
the bee ; Formica , the ant, &c. 

Vespa, Wasp.—These live mostly in numerous societies, 
constructing curious nests, or combs, generally under ground ; 
they prey upon other insects, especially bees and flies, and devour 
meal, bread, and fruit. 

Apis, Bee.—The females have a pungent sting concealed 
within the abdomen. The bee is a well-known insect, of a 
brown colour, and rather hairy body. They live in numerous 
societies, either in decayed trees, or in habitations prepared for 



"NATURAL HISTORY". 


581 


them, called hives. Each hive contains a single female, called 
the queen bee; about 1600 males, called drones; and about20,000 
others, long supposed to be of neither sex. Upon the latter, 
the whole trouble devolves of constructing the combs, and col¬ 
lecting and forming the honey. Of all winged insects none are 
more wonderful or more beneficial to man than bees. In some 
countries bees are an object of great attention to the peasant, 
and their honey and wax are considerable articles of trade. It 
would, however, be impossible to enter into particulars in this 
place : we shall therefore only observe that their civil and domestic 
economy, and their unwearied industry, alike entitle them to our 
regard and imitation. 


Order 6. — Diptera. 

This order consists of insects with two wings only, as the 
whole race of flies strictly so called, as well as gnats, and a 
great variety of other insects. 

The genera are, (Estrus , the gad-flv ; Musca , common flies; 
Culex , gnat, mosquito, &c. ; Hippobosca , horse-leech, &c. 

Musca, Common-fly.—Some of these insects have trunks 
instead of a mouth ; others have that organ armed with teeth ; 
and many have a mouth and a trunk. Each eye of the fly contains 
in it an assemblage of a vast number of small ones, which some 
have supposed to have the effect of multiplying the surrounding 
objects. The larvae are without feet, composed of several segments, 
nearly cylindrical, and becoming smaller behind. The pupae are 
immovable, and most of them covered with a hard skin. The 
greater part are oviparous ; but some of this genus are viviparous. 

Culex, Gnat.—The insects of this genus live on the juices 
of the larger animals, and are eagerly sought after by poultry, and 
small birds. They deposit their eggs in clusters on the surface of 
the water, where they remain for a few days until they are hatched. 

Order 7. — Apt era. 

The insects of this order are entirely without wings. 

The principal genera are, Termes , the white ant; Pediculus , 
the louse ; Pidex , the flea; A cams, the tick, mite, &c.; Aranea , 
spiders; Scorpio , the scorpion ; Cancer , the crab, lobster, craw¬ 
fish, shrimp, &c.; Mono cuius, the water-flea; and Oniscus , the 
wood-louse. 

- Pediculus, Louse.—The insects of this genus live by sucking 
the juices of animals. The larvae and pupae have six feet, and are 


532 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


active, resembling the perfect insect. The louse which infests 
the human body, when viewed through a microscope, has such a 
transparent shell or skin, that we are able to discover more of 
what passes within its body than in most other living creatures. 
In the head appear two fine black eyes, with a horn that has five 
joints, and is surrounded with hairs standing before each eye. 
When the louse moves its legs, the motion of the muscles which 
all unite in one oblong dark spot in the middle of the breast, 
may be distinguished perfectly. But the most surprising of all 
the sights is the peristaltic motion of the guts, which is continued 
all the way from the stomach down to the anus. 

Pulex, Flea.—This genus lives on the juice and blood of other 
animals. This familiar insect is to be met with every where. It 
is covered all over with black and hard scales, which are curiously 
jointed, and folded over one another, so as to comply with all the 
nimble motions of the creature. 

A rank a, Spider.—The anus is furnished with papillae, with 
which the insect spins threads, and forms its web. These insects, 
through every stage of their existence, prey upon other insects, 
especially those of the order Diptera ; they even do not spare those 
of their own genus or species. From the papillae at the end of the 
abdomen they throw out at pleasure a number of fine threads, 
which they unite in various ways for the purpose of entangling 
their prey. 

The two genera, cancer and monoculus , are crustaceous, or have 
a hard shelly covering, and for this reason they have been by 
the French naturalists considered as an entirely distinct order, 
under the name of Crustacea. The crabs and lobsters cast their 
skins annually, the body shrinking before the change, and enabling 
them casdy to draw out their limbs from the shell. 

Class VI.— Vermes, Worms , fyc. 

This class of animals is generally considered as the lowest in 
the scale of animated being. The simplicity of their form, the 
humility of their station, and the small degree of sense and motion 
which most of them possess, render them an object of little attention 
to mankind in general. Many of these animals cannot be obtained 
without diving to the bottom of the sea, or braving pain and 
danger in the pursuit. The furia infernalis attacks the searcher 
in the marshy plains of Bothnia; and the sepia octopus stretches 
forth his gigantic arms, to entangle and drag him to his watery 
den. Hence the opportunities of examination are often rare ; and, 
owing to the changes which many of the species undergo* it is in 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


553 


* 


many cases difficult to determine to what species these animals 
really belong. The Linnaean class Vermes has been subdivided by 
the modern naturalists, particularly those of the French school, into 
several classes; the Mollusca , Zoophytes , and Vermes , being each 
made to form a distinct class: to which some have added that of 
Crustacea , already alluded to in the last class. 

The Mollusca derive their name from the soft fleshy 
nature of their body. This order includes those pulpy ani¬ 
mals which may either be destitute of an external covering, as 
the slug; or may be enclosed in one or more shells, as the snail, 
oyster, &c. 

Asterias, Star-fish, or Sea^-star, (fig. 8).— These animals 
constitute one of the most numerous genera of the mollusca. They 
are very curious in their forms, but are almost all radiated, as stars 
are usually painted ; and some of them, from the minuteness of 
their rays, make a very beautiful appearance. 

The shell-animals are produced from eggs, which in some species 
are gelatinous, or gluey; and in others, covered with a hard or calca¬ 
reous shell; and the young animal emerges from the egg with its 
shell on its back. The most familiar and convincing proof of this 
may be obtained by observing the hatching of the eggs of the 
common garden snail, as well as of several of the water snails, which 
deposit eggs so transparent, that the motions of the young, with the 
shell on its back, may be very distinctly seen several days before the 
period of hatching. All the shell animals are of such a constitution 
as perpetually to secrete or exude from their bodies a viscid moisture, 
and it is with this, managed according to the exigencies of the 
animal, that the shell is, throughout life, increased in dimensions, 
and repaired when accidentally broken in any particular part. 

Vermes, or Worms, properly so called.—The major part of 
worms are the inhabitants of living animal bodies, their intro¬ 
duction into which is one of those inscrutable mysteries which 
must for ever evade the power of human intellect. They exist 
in most animals; some kinds in the intestines, and some in the 
other viscera. There are some of this division which do not in¬ 
habit other bodies. The common earth-worm, or dew-worm, has 
neither bones, brains, eyes, nor feet. It has a number of breath¬ 
ing holes situate along its back, near each ring. Its heart is placed 
near the head, and may be observed to beat with a very distinct 
motion. The body is formed of about a hundred and forty small 
rings, furnished with a set of muscles that enable it to act in a 
sort of spiral direction ; and by this means it is capable, in the 


534 YOUNG man’s COMPANION. 

most complete manner, of creeping on the earth, or penetrating 
into its substance. 

The Zoophytes, or plant animals, seem to hold a middle 
station between animals and vegetables. Most of them, deprived 
of locomotion, are fixed by stems that take root in the crevices of 
rocks, among sand, or in other situations. 

The Polypes (germs hydra) deserve our particular notice. These 
curious animals are found adhering to the stems of aquatic plants, 
or to the under surfaces of the leaves. The species are multiplied 
by vegetation, one or two, or even more young ones, emerging 
gradually from the sides of the parent animal; and these young 
are frequently again prolific, so that it is not uncommon to see two 
or three generations at once in the same polype. But the most 
curious particular respecting this animal is its multiplication by 
dissection. It may be cut in every direction, and even into very 
minute divisions, and not only the parent stock will remain un¬ 
injured, but every section will become a perfect animal. 

The hard or horny zoophytes are known by the name of Corals, 
( corallina ), and are equally of an animal nature with the polype ; 
the whole coral continuing to grow as an animal, and to form by 
secretion the strong or stony part of the coral, which at once may 
be considered as its bone and its habitation, and which it has no 
power of leaving. The SroNGES (spongia) consist of a ramified 
mass of capillary tubes, that were long supposed to be the pro¬ 
duction of a species of worms, which are often found within these 
cavities—an idea, however, which is now nearly exploded. These 
animals are certainly the most torpid of all the zoophytes. Some 
of them, as the common sponge, are of no determinate figure; 
but others are cup-shaped, tubular, &c. 

There is another order of this class, to which Linnaeus gave the 
name of Animalcula Infusoria, and which consists of ani¬ 
malcules found in different liquids, &c. The ancients were totally 
unacquainted with this class of beings. To them the mite was 
the utmost bound of animal minuteness ; but the moderns, assisted 
by that powerful instrument, the microscope, have discovered 
whole tribes of animals, compared with which even mites may be 
considered as a kind of elephants. A countless swarm of animal¬ 
cules will always appear in any vegetable infusion, after the space 
of a few days ; as in infusions of hay, beans, wheat, and other 
substances. 

The Vorticella, or wheel animal, is perhaps as extraordinary 
in its construction, as any which the progress of science lias 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


535 


brought to our notice. This wonderful animalcule is found in 
rain water that has stood some days in leaden gutters, or in hollows 
of lead on the tops of houses, or in the slime or sediment left by 
such w r ater. Its wheel work consists of a couple of semicircular 
instruments, round the edges of which many little fibrillse move 
themselves very briskly, sometimes in a kind of rotation, and 
sometimes in a trembling or vibrating manner. When in this state 
it sometimes unfastens its tail, and swims along with a great deal 
of swiftness, seemingly in pursuit of its prey. 

The discovery of animals infinitely minute, under such circum¬ 
stances, and the constant tendency of certain substances to pro¬ 
duce them, may be considered as among the wonders of nature, 
which will probably remain for ever unexplained. But though we 
can by no means pretend to account for the appearance of these 
animalcules, yet we cannot help observing, that our ignorance of 
the cause of any phenomenon is no argument against its existence. 
In reasoning on this subject, we ought always to remember, that, 
however essential the distinction of bodies into great and small 
may appear to us, they are not so to the Deity, with whom, as. 
Mr. Baker well expresses himself, “ a nation is as a world, and a 
world but as an atom.'” Were the Deity to exert his power for a 
little, and give a natural philosopher a view of a quantity of paste 
filled with eels, from each of whose bodies the light was reflected, 
as when it passes through a solar microscope; instead of imagining 
them organic particles, the paste would appear like a little moun¬ 
tain ; he would, probably, look upon the whole as a monstrous 
assemblage of serpents, and be afraid to come near them. 
Wherever, therefore, we discover beings to appearances endowed 
with the principle of self-preservation, or whatever else we make 
the characteristic of animals, neither the smallness of their size, 
nor the impossibility of our knowing how they came there, ought 
to cause us to doubt of their being really animated. 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


r,m 


CHAPTER XIII. 

BOTANY. 

Botany is that branch of natural science which treats of the 
natural history and classical arrangement of the vegetable kingdom. 

Vegetables are organized bodies supported by air and food, en¬ 
dowed with life, and subject to deatlj, as well as animals. They 
have, in some instances, spontaneous, though we know not that 
they have voluntary, motion. They are sensible to the action of 
nourishment, air, and light, and either thrive or languish, according 
to the wholesome or hurtful application of these stimulants. This 
is evident to all who have ever seen a plant growing in a climate, 
soil, or situation not suitable to it. 

The external covering of plants, the epidermis, or cuticle, 
is commonly transparent and smooth ; sometimes it is hairy or 
downy ; and sometimes of so hard a nature that even flint has been 
detected in its composition. The equisetum hyeinale , or Dutch 
rush, serves as a file to polish wood, ivory, and even brass. Under 
the cuticle is found the cellular integument, which is analogous to 
the rete mucosum of animals ; it is, like that, of a pulpy texture, 
and the seat of colour. It is commonly green in the leaves and 
stems, and is dependent for its hue on the action of light. When 
the cellular integument is removed, the bark presents itself, which 
in plants or branches only one year old, consists of a simple layer. 
In the branches and stems of trees it consists of as many layers as 
they are years old. The uses of bark are familiar to us. The 
Peruvian bark affords “ a cooling draught to the fevered lip 
while that of the cinnamon yields a rich cordial; and that which is 
stripped from the oak is used for the purposes of tanning. Im - 
mediately under the bark is situated the wood, which forms the 
great bulk of trees and shrubs. This also consists of numerous 
layers, as may be observed in the fir and many other trees, and 
from these eccentric circles or rings, the age of the tree may be de¬ 
termined. Within the centre of the wood is the medulla or pith, 
which is a cellular substance, juicy when young, extending from 
the roots to the summits of the branches. In describing the cha- 
meters of plants we shall treat of their root, buds, trunk, leaves, 
props, inflorescence, and fructification. 










B O T A N ¥ . 

LIMN EAST CLASSES. 


1. Monandria . 


2,Diandria. 


WHEAT. 


3, Triandria. 


4, Tetrandri'a . 


9. Enneandria . 


FlOWERraC. RUSH . 


CHIC KVTE E I) 


WIUOW HERB 


J1 .Dodecandria . 


10, Dec a n dr la . 


12, Ieosamdria 


16, Monadelphia . 


24,Cryptogamia . 


JOINTED GLASS WORT . 


5, Pentandria . 


PRIMROSE . 


6, Hexandria . 


7, Heptandria. 


8, Octandria . 


VENUS' PIYTRAP. 


SPIKED LOOSESTRIFE 


PEPPER MYRTLE . 


15, Tetradynamia. 


WALL FLOWER. 


19, Syngenesia. 


DANDELION. 
2 '. Polygarnia.. 


musk mallow. 


13, Folyandria. 


14 , Didyaarrda . 


WHITE NETTLE. 


•PELLTTO'RW. 


20, Gyrtandria. 
«✓ 


REE ORCHIS . 


18, Folya.delph.ia. 


ST.JOHN'S WORT. 


17, Diadelpkia . 


SWEET PEA. 

21, Monoeeia. 


22 , Dioecia. 

























































BOTANY. 


537 


Roots. 

Roots are necessary to plants, to fix and hold them in the earth, 
from which they imbibe nourishment. Roots are either annual , or 
living for one season, as in barley; biennial , which survive one 
winter, and after perfecting their seed perish at the end of the fol¬ 
lowing summer, as wheat; or perennial, which remain and produce 
blossoms for an infinite number of years, as those of trees and shrubs 
in general. The root consists of two parts, the caudex and the 
radicula. The caudex , or stump, is the body or knob of the root, 
from which the trunk and branches ascend, and the fibrous roots 
descend. The radicula is the fibrous part of the root branching 
from the caudex. 

Roots are, 1. Fibrous , or consisting entirely of fibres, as in many 
grasses and herbaceous plants. 2. Creeping , or having a subter¬ 
raneous stem, spreading horizontally in the ground, throwing out 
numerous fibres, as in mint and couch grass. 3. Spindle-shaped , 
as in the radish and carrot, which produce numerous fibres for the 
absorption of nutriment. 4. Stumped , or apparently bitten off, as 
the primrose. 5. Tuberous , or knobbed, as the potato, which 
consists of fleshy knobs, connected by common stalks or fibres. 
6 . Bulbous , as in the crocus. 7. Granulated , or having a cluster 
of little bulbs or scales connected by a common fibre, as the saxi¬ 
frage. 

Buds. 

These are, in most instances, guarded by scales, and fur¬ 
nished with gum, or w r oolliness, as an additional defence. Buds 
are various in their forms, but very uniform in the same species, or 
even genus. They enfold the embryo plant. 

Trunk. 

The trunk of trees includes the stems or stalks, which are of 
several kinds. The stem as it advances in growth, is either able to 
support itself, or twines round other bodies. It is either simple, as 
in the lily; or branched, as in other plants. 

The parts are, 1. Caulis , the stem, which bears both leaves and 
flowers, as the trunks and branches of all trees an<Tshrubs, as well 
as of many herbaceous plants. 2. Culmus, a straw or culm, the 
peculiar stem of grasses, rushes, and similar plants. 3. Scapus , or 
stalk, springs immediately from the root, bearing flowers and 
fruit, but not leaves, as in the primrose or cowslip. 4. Pedunculus , 
the flower-stalk, springs from the stems or branches, bearing flowers 
and fruit, but not leaves. 5. Petiolus } the foot-stalk, is applied ex¬ 
clusively to the stalk of a leaf. 

3 z 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


.1 


38 


Leaves. 

These are generally so formed as to present a large surface to 
the atmosphere. The nutritious juices, imbibed from the earth 
and become sap, are carried by appropriate vessels into the sub¬ 
stance of the leaves, and these juices are returned from each leaf, 
not into the wood again, but into the bark. This sap is carried 
into the leaves for the purpose of being acted upon by air and 
light, with the assistance of heat and moisture. By all these 
agents, a most material change is wrought in the component parts 
of the sap, according to the nature of the secretions which are ela¬ 
borated, whether resinous, oily, mucilaginous, saccharine, bitter, 
acid, or alkaline. The green colour of the leaves is almost entirely 
owing to the action of light. Leaves are subject to a sort of dis¬ 
ease by which they become partially spotted or streaked, as with 
white or yellow, and in this state are termed variegated. The 
irritable nature of the leaves is very extraordinary. The mimosa 
pudica , or sensitive plant, common in hot houses, when touched 
bv any extraneous body, folds up its leaves one after another, 
while their foot-stalks droop, as if dying. 

Props. 

The supports or props of plants are useful to defend them from 
enemies or injuries. These are divided into seven kinds: 1. Stipula , 
a leafy appendage to the true leaves or to the stalks, for the most 
part in pairs. 2. Bractea , a leafy appendage to the flower or its 
stalk, very conspicuous in the lime tree. 3. Spina , a thorn, proceeds 
from the wood itself, as in the wild pear-tree, which loses its thorns 
by cultivation. 4. Aculeus , a prickle, proceeds from the bark only, 
as in the rose and bramble. 5. Cirrus , a tendril or clasper, is a 
support for weak stems, and enables them to climb rocks, or the 
trunks of lofty trees. 6 . Glandula , a gland, is a small tumour, 
secreting a sweet, resinous, or fragrant liquor, as on the calyx or 
cup of the moss-rose, and the foot-stalks of passion-flowers. 7. Pitas, 
a hair, which includes all the various kinds of pubescence, bristles, 
wool, &c., some of which discharge a poison, as in the nettle; causing 
great irritation whenever they are so touched that their points may 
wound the skin. 

Inflorescence. 

Inflorescence, or the different kinds or modes of flowering, 
are, 1 . Verticillus, a whorl, in which the flowers surround the 
stem in a garland or ring, as in the mint, dead nettle, &c. 
2. Racemns , a cluster, bears several flowers each on its own 


botany. 


539 


stalk, like a bunch of currants. 3. Spica , a spike, is composed of 
numerous crowded flowers, ranged along an upright common stalk, 
expanding progressively, as in wheat and barley. 4. Corymbus , 
a corymb, is aflat-topped spike, as in the cabbage and wall-flower. 

5. Fasciculus, a close bundle of flowers, as in the sweet william. 

6. Capitulum, a head or tuft, as in the globe amaranthus and 
thrift. 7. Umbella , an umbel, consists of several stalks' called 
rays, spreading like an umbrella, as in parsley, carrot, and hemlock. 

8. Cyma , a cyme or stalks, springing from a common centre, 
afterwards irregularly subdivided, as in the laurustinus and alder. 

9. Paniculus , panicle, a loose subdivided bunch of flowers, as in 
the oat. 10. Thyrsus , a bunch, is a very dense particle inclining 
to an oval figure, as in the lilac. 

Fructification. 

Under this term are comprehended not only the parts of the 
fruit, but also those of the flower, which last are indispensable 
for bringing the former to perfection. 

The flower is that temporary and beautiful part of vegetables 
which is intended for the introduction of the seed. It consists 
of seven principal parts ; namely, the calyx, corolla, stamen, pistil, 
pericarp or seed-vessel, seed, and receptacle; the four first belong 
properly to the flower, and the three last to the fruit. These 
parts of fructification are particularly requisite to be known, as 
Qn them the classification of plants, according to the system of 
Linnseus, is founded. 

The Calyx, empalement or flower-cup, is the green part which 
is situated immediately below the blossom. Its chief use is to 
enclose and protect the other parts of the flower. It sometimes 
consists of two or more leaves, as the rose, and sometimes tubular, 
as like the cowslip, &c. 

The Corolla, blossom, or what is commonly called the flower, 
is the part which is most beautifully coloured, of the finest texture, 
and often smells sweet. The leaves which compose the corolla 
are called petals. 

The Stamens, which are situated in the centre of the flower, 
are composed of two parts, one long and thin, by which they are 
fastened to the bottom of the corolla, called the filament, a; the 
other, thicker, placed at the top of the filament, called the anthera, 
b, which opens when it is ripe, and discharges a yellowish dust, 
called pollen or farina, from its being like flour. 

The Pistils commonly appear in the centre of the corolla, 
from which they rise like so many columns. There are from one 


510 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

to twelve, or more in each flower. The pistil consists of three 
parts, the germ, the style, and the stigma. 

The germ is the pedestal or base of the pistil. Its office is 
to contain the seeds which are not yet arrived at maturity; the 
style is the pillar or thread, which supports the stigma : and the 
stigma \s the highest part of the pistil. 

The* Pericarp, or seed-vessel, is the case or covering of the 
seed, and is the external part of the germ come to maturity. 

The Seed of plants is that part of every vegetable which, at 
a certain state of maturity, is separated from it, and contains the 
rudiments of a new plant, though the parts are too minute to b*' 
discerned by our organs of sight. 

The Receptacle , or base, is that part which supports and 
connects the whole together. 

There are other terms in regard to flowers which require to be 
explained. A flower is superior, when the receptacle of the flower 
is above the germ ; it is inferior, when the receptacle is below the 
germ ; it is said to be naked when the calyx is absent; is called 
complete, when it has both a calyx and corolla; and incomplete, 
when either of these is deficient. 

An aggregate flower is a flower composed of florets standing 
on foot stalks, attached to a broad receptacle. 

An umbellated plant is one which sends out towards the top, 
from the same point or centre, a number of branches, like the 
spokes of an umbrella, and bearing flowers on the top, as the 
carrot, parsnip, and parsley. 

The extraordinary number and variety of plants is calculated 
to embarrass the student in botany. It has, therefore, become 
expedient to submit them to a scientific arrangement, by which 
the minutest distinctions may be easily described. For this, as 
well as the subject of the last chapter, we are indebted to the 
celebrated Linnaeus, whose classification of plants has introduced 
light and order into a subject which was formerly enveloped in 
darkness and difficulty. 

It is supposed that there are upwards of twenty thousand 
species of plants which compose the vegetable kingdom ; nor 
will this number appear so very surprising, when we consider that 
the whole surface of the earth is covered with them. About two 
thousand of these are natives of Great Britain, of which one half 
are mosses, and the like. 


BOTANY. 


541 


Classification. 

The system of Linnceus is founded on the number, situation, 
and proportion of the stamens and pistils, whose uses and structure 
have been just explained. That celebrated botanist divided the 
whole vegetable creation into twenty-four classes. These are 
again divided into orders, which are subdivided into genera or 
tribes; and the genera into species or individuals. 

The characters of the classes are taken from the number, con¬ 
nexion, length, or situation of the stamens. In each of the first 
twenty classes there are stamens and pistils in the same flower. 
In the twenty-first class they are in distinct flowers on the same 
plant; in the twenty-second, in distinct flowers on different 
plants ; in the twenty-third, they are in the same flower as well 
as in distinct ones ; and they are not all to be seen in the twenty- 
fourth class. The names of the classes are formed from Greek 
words, and express the characteristics of each class. The first ten 
classes are named from the Greek numerals, and the word andria , 
which the student must consider as meaning the same as stamens 


1 

CLASSES. 

Monandria 

One stamen. 

2 

Diandria 

Two stamens. 

3 

Triandria 

Three stamens. 

4 

Tetrandria 

Four stamens. 

5 

Pentandria 

Five stamens. 

6 

Hexandria 

Six stamens. 

7 

Heptandria 

Seven stamens. 

8 

Octandria 

Eight stamens. 

9 

Enneandria 

Nine stamens. 

10 

Decandria 

Ten stamens. 

11 

Dodecandria 

Twelve stamens. 

12 

Icosandria 

Twenty stamens. 

13 

Polyandria 

Many stamens. 

14 

Didynamia 

Four stamens, two longer. 

15 

Tetradynamia 

Six stamens, four longer. 

16 

Monadelphia 

Filaments united at bottom, 

17 

Diadelphia 

but separated at top. 
Filaments in two sets. 

18 

Polyadelphia 

Filaments in many sets. 

19 

Syngenesia 

Stamens united by antherae# 

20 

Gynandria 

Stamens and pistils together. 

21 

Moncecia 

Stamens and pistils in sepa¬ 



rate flowers upon the same 
plant. 


542 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


CLASSES. 

22 Dicecia Stamens and pistils distinct 

upon different plants. 

23 Polygamia Variously situated. 

24 Cryptogamia Flowers invisible. 

In the above arrangement, the names of the first ten classes are 
distinguished by the numbers of the stamens; as, for instance, 
all plants which have only one stamen are of the first class; and 
those that have only two are of the second ; those that have only 
three are the third, and so on. 

The formation of the orders is as ingenious and simple as that 
of the classes. In the first thirteen classes, the orders are founded 
wholly on the number of pistils; so that by adding gynia , instead 
of andria, to the Greek word signifying the numbers, they will be 
easily recollected. Where they are not distinguished by the 
number of pistils, their names are taken from some circumstance 
relative to the stamens, pistils, or seed, as follows:— 


Monogynia 

One pistil. 

Digynia 

Two pistils. 

Trigynia 

Three pistils. 

Tetragynia 

Four pistils. 

Pentagynia 

Five pistils. 

Hexagynia 

Six pistils. 

Heptagynia 

Seven pistils. 

Octagynia 

Eight pistils. 

Enneagynia 

Nine pistils. 

Decagynia 

Ten pistils. 

Dodecagynia 

Twelve pistils. 

Polygynia 

Many pistils. 


In the fourteenth class there are only two orders, which depend 
on the presence or absence of the pericarp or seed-vessel. 1. 
Gyjnnospermia, naked seeds in the bottom of the calyx. 2. An- 
giospermia , seeds enclosed in a pericarp. 

The fifteenth class is divided into two orders, which are taken 
from a difference in the form of the pericarp. 1 . Siliculoso , seeds 
enclosed in a silicle, or roundish seed-vessel. 2. Siliquosa , seeds 
enclosed in a silique, or long seed-vessel. 

In the classes Monodelphia, Diadelphia, Polyadelphia, and 
Gynandria, the orders are distinguished by the number of stamens ; 
viz. Pentandria , five stamens; Hexandria , six stamens, &c. 

There are four orders in the nineteenth class, taken from the 
structure of the flower. 1. Polygamia JEqualis , having both 
stamens and pistils in the same floret. 2. Polygamia superfluity 


JHOTANY. 


543 


when the flower is composed of two parts, a disk, or central part, 
and rays or petals projecting outwards. 3. Polygamia frustranea , 
the florets of the centre perfect or united. 4. Polygamia neces¬ 
sarian where the florets in the disk, though apparently perfect, are 
not really so. 

In the classes Gynandria, Monoecia, and Dicesia, the orders are 
formed from the numbers and other peculiarities of the stamens • 
as Monandria , one stamen; Diandria , two stamens, &c. 

The twenty-third class, (Polygamia), comprises three orders, 
namely, Monoecia , Dioecia , and Trioecia. The last class (Cryp- 
togamia) has four orders, Ferns, Mosses , Sea-weeds , and Fun¬ 
guses. 


Classes. 

The Plate, Botany, contains a specimen from each of the twenty- 
four classes, to which the reader is especially referred in reading 
the following description. 

Class I.—Monandria. 

Most of the plants belonging to this class are natives of India, 
the principal, perhaps, is the arrow root (Maranta arundinacea ), 
whichis so strengthening to an invalid. Turmeric (Curcuma long a), 
is also in Monandria, and is the ingredient that gives the yellow 
colour to curry powder. Ginger, too (Zingiber officinale ), is in 
this class; but the parts of all three plants which we use are 
merely the roots ; arrow-root and turmeric are sent to England 
in powder, but the roots of the ginger are carefully dug up, 
dried, and sent here in their natural state. 

The jointed glass-wort, or sea-grass (Salicornia herbacea), 
(fig. 1,) has three small flowers on each side of each joint, every 
one is composed of a square calyx, and has one stamen and one 
pistil. It is a very poor looking plant; nevertheless, it is most 
serviceable, being used in the manufacture of soap and glass; 
for its ashes, when burnt, produce a substance called barilla or 
soda. 


Class IT.—Diandria. 

Plants in this class are very numerous, both wild and cultivated. 
The speedwell (Veronica beccabungd ) is one among many plants, 
useful as medicines to the poor cottager. It was formerly much 
valued as an application to wounds and swellings. It is still eaten 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


514 

as water-cress in many country places, and considered extremely 
wholesome when fresh gathered. 

The delicate and fragrant jasmine, ( jasminum odorcitissimum ) ; 
the verbena ( verbena triphylla ), with its sweet smelling leaves; 
rosemary (rosmarinus officinalis) \ sage (salvia officinalis) ; and the 
common privet (ligustrum vulgare) , which we use as a hedge, and 
which produces berri-es, that, mixed with different solutions, form 
red, purple, green, black, and blue dyes, and are used in colouring 
the figures upon cards,—all belong to Diandria. Olives are the 
pericarp of a tree in this class; the peasantry in the south of 
Europe gather them when ripe, and eat them with bread as we do 
butter ; for they contain a great quantity of oil ; they are quite 
black when fully ripe. In that state likewise, they go through a 
process by which all the oil is drawn from the pulp ; it is after¬ 
wards clarified, and then put into those little wicker flasks that 
contain the Florence oil we eat with salads. 

Common white jasmine (jasminum officinale , fig. &), is a native 
of India, but has long been cultivated in Europe. It is cliie fly 
raised against walls, and is interesting not only from the elegance 
of its foliage, but also from the number of beautiful white flowers 
with which it is adorned, which exhale a sweet odour, particularly 
after rain, and in the night. 

The botanical characteristics are, stem weak, climbing, round ; 
leaves pinnate; leaflets usually seven, broad, lanceolate, the end 
one larger and more pointed : corolla white ; border sometimes 
only four—cleft. 


Class III.— Triandria. 

This class deserves most attention, from its containing prin¬ 
cipally in its second order, (digynia) the various sorts of grasses 
that grow so abundantly in meadows, hedges, and lawns, serving 
as food for cattle, and being the “ staff of life" to man; for 
wheat (triticum hybernum ), barley (hordeum vulgare), rye (secali 
cereals ), and oats (avena sativa ), are only grasses ; not wild with 
us, but sown in England in great quantities, from the importance 
attached to them as articles of food. The blossom of grasses, 
consist first of a calyx, composed of two green husks, one of 
which is longer than the other; this contains two valves of a 
thinner texture, within which are the two stamens and the pistils; 
and in addition to this, some grasses have attached to their 
corolla a stiff bristly appendage, called the awn, or beard, (arista). 
Many kinds of reeds ( arundo ), and rushes (scirpus), belong to this 
class also; the large bull-rush (scirpus lacustris), is an example, 


BOTANY. 


0*^0 


and in tropical countries we have another well known reed, the 
sugar cane ( saccharum officinarum ), from which all kinds of 
sugar are prepared. It is a native of China, but extensively 
cultivated in the West Indies; and the processes which the 
juice of this reed undergoe before it is converted into sugar are 
very curious and interesting. 

Winter, or common wheat ( triticum hybernum ), is selected in 
the plate as a specimen (fig. 3.) Common wheat ripens within a 
year from the time of sowing, although this is accomplished in 
parts of two years. The following is its classical description : 
culm jointed, three feet high ; dark green smooth leaves ; spike 
long and close, the lower flowers imperfect; the Calyx containing 
generally four flowers; valves of the corolla generally smooth, 
but in some of the varieties terminated by awns ; nectaries small, 
fringed and silky. Its varieties are white and red lammas wheat, 
without awns ; white and red bearded wheat. 

Class IV.—Tetkanduia. 

There are three common little plants in this class—the sweet- 
scented woodruff ( asperula odorata) ; the goose-grass ( galium 
aparine ), or cleaver ; and the plantain ( plantago ). But the plants 
most worthy of remark in it are the teasel ( dipsacus fullonum ), 
and the madder (rubia tinctorum ), because they both possess useful 
qualities. Madder is used in painting; it is the root that affords 
the fine red dye, from which those paints, brown, red, and purple 
madders, are prepared; and if cattle eat of this plant, it pos¬ 
sesses the peculiar property of tinting their milk, and even their 
bones, of a bright scarlet. The holly {ilex aquifolium) also 
belongs to this class. It is an evergreen , and its wood, which is 
particularly valuable to turners, from being so extremely hard and 
fine-grained, is sometimes termed English ebony, because it not 
only takes a black dye freely, but afterwards admits of a high 
polish. 

The teasel {dipsacus fullonum ), is cultivated in several parts of 
England, and used in the carding of woollen cloths. It is dis¬ 
tinguished from other plants of the same tribe, by having its 
leaves connected at the base, and the calyx reflexed. Fig. 4 
represents the wild teasel which is indigenous in England. The 
botanical characteristics are, entire lanceolate leaves, in opposite 
pairs ; the mid-rib and stem prickly; straight chaff. 




YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


Class V.—Pentandira. 

In this class is comprised one-tenth of the vegetable world, and 
it includes many very agreeable flowers, as the primrose ( primula 
vulgaris), cowslip ( primula veris ), &c. 

Among others in this class, are the honeysuckle ( lonic&ra capri- 
folium), the periwinkle (vinca minor), the sweet-scented violet, 
\viola odorata), from the juice of which the Turks prepare the beve¬ 
rage called sherbet, so often mentioned in Eastern tales; the forget- 
me-not (myosotispalustris), the convolvulus (convolvulus arvensis), 
and mullein (verbascum blattaria ), the bell-flower (campanula 
ccerulea), borage (borago officinalis), and buglos (echium vulgar e), 
with their bright blue blossoms; the gay scarlet pimpernel 
(anagallis arvensis), the thrift (statice armeria ), and that most 
useful of plants, the flax (linum usitatissimum ), from which linen of 
every description is made. The tri-coloured yellow, and purple 
pansy (viola tricolor'), which name is merely a corruption of the 
French word pensee, belongs to pentar.dria; so does the azalea, 
(azalea pontica), the Greek valerian (polemonium cceruleum ), the 
Canterbury bell (campanula medium), gentianella (gentiana 
acaulis ), guelder-rose (viburnum opulus), auricula (primula auri¬ 
cula), and heliotrope (heliotropium suaveolens), not forgetting 
the endless number of polyanthuses, which are merely varieties of 
the common primrose. The common ivy (hedera helix), also, whose 
bunches of black berries form the chief winter food of the wood- 
pigeon, thrush, and other large birds, and the potatoe (solatium tu¬ 
berosum), a native of South America, from whence it was introduced 
into England by the celebrated Sir Walter Raleigh, are of this 
class. 

The parsnip (pastinaca sativa), carrot (daucus carota), fennel 
(anethum foeniculum), celery (apium graveolens ), and parsley 
(apium petroselinum), and the elder-tree (sambucus nigra), are 
in this class. Currants (ribes rubrum), gooseberries (ribes uva- 
crispa ), and grapes (vitis vinifera ), are pentandrious plants. 

The exotic productions include important drugs, such as 
stramonium (datura stramonium), assafcetida (ferula assafoetida), 
Peruvian bark (cinchona officinalis ), of which the substance called 
quinine is a preparation ; also Cayenne pepper (capsicum 
grossum), besides several dyes, varnishes, and gums, all of great 
importance in different manufactures, both abroad and at home. 
The fine elm tree ( ulmus campestris ), which gives its name to the 
ancient imperial city of Ulm, in Germany ; and the teak-tree, 
(tectona grandis), which may be styled the oak of India, from being 
applied to ship-building and all purposes where durability is re- 


HOT ANY. 


547 


quired; are the timber trees in this class ; but the production in 
it best known is the coffee-shrub ( coffea Arabioa ), a native of 
Arabia, and much cultivated both in the East and West Indies. 

Tobacco is prepared from the dried leaves of a pentandrious 
plant, so named from Tobago, one of the Caribbee islands, in 
America, frbm whence it was brought to England by Sir Francis 
Drake, in 1585. 

The common primrose ( primula vulgaris ), (see fig. 5,) is thus 
described:—Root bitten off; scapes upright, round, pale green, 
having one flower each; leaves obovate oblong, nearly upright, 
toothed and wrinkled, rolled back at the edges, their footstalks of 
a reddish colour ; corolla pale sulphur colour; mouth with a faint 
rim round it. 

Class VI. —Hexandria. 

Our gardens receive many of their most splendid embellish¬ 
ments from flowers of this class. They are principally exotics; 
i. e . belonging to other countries, and not indigenous , or growing 
naturally in our own. The common white lily (lilium candidum), 
as well as the orange lily and the spotted lily, belong to the same 
tribe, with many others equally beautiful, and they all possess 
such a natural resemblance in their general structure, that they 
are termed liliaceous plants, and form one of the principal features 
in the sixth class; the crown imperial ( frittillaria imperialis ), the 
pretty chequered frittillaria ( frittillaria meleagris), and all the 
varieties of tulip ( tulipa ), as well as the sweet-smelling hyacinth 
(hyacinthus), equally belong to it, and are most of them natives of 
the Levant and different parts of Asia. The onion ( allium cepa ), 
a very useful vegetable, is in hexandria; so likewise are garlic, 
(allium ampeloprasum ), leeks (allium porrum) , and chives (allium 
schoenoprasum) , all of one family, and remarkable for their strong- 
unpleasant smell; they are very valuable for culinary purposes, 
and are eaten with avidity in the south of Europe by the peasantry, 
both raw and boiled ; but especially in Spain and Portugal, where 
the onion acquires a milder and finer flavour than in most other 
countries. One kind of onion is a very common weed in woods 
and hedges; it is called ramsons, and if cows eat of it, it gives 
their milk and butter a most unpleasant taste, like garlic. 

Fig 6 represents the common garden tulip (tulipa gesneriana). 
The botanical characteristics are a smooth stem, about a foot high, 
bending a little, bearing one large upright flower; corolla with 
ovate blunt petals, which in a wild state are red, with a black 
base ; anthers dark coloured. 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


548 


Class VII. —Heptandria. 

We are now come to tlie smallest of all the classes, for 
heptandria contains even fewer specimens than monandria ; for 
u possesses but one native example, and that, though ^occasionally 
met with in quite the northern counties of England, is generally 
considered a Scottish plant, for it grows most luxuriantly and 
plentifully all over Scotland, where the inhabitants are not a little 
proud of possessing the only British specimen in heptandria, and 
one, too, which is celebrated from having been characterised by 
Linnaeus as “ his favourite little plant."” 

It is called the chickweed winter green ( trientalis Europced), 
and has seven stamens and one pistil, (fig. 7.) It is a pretty, 
delicate plant, with bright green leaves, a slender stalk, and white 
star-like flowers ; composed of a monopetalous corolla, divided into 
several narrow segments. 

The only other example in heptandria, is the horse chestnut 
(cesGuius hippocastanum ), which blossoms so beautifully in the 
spring ; its flowers are in large clusters of the purest white, spotted 
all over with red and yellow; within them are disposed seven 
stamens and one pistil. Nothing can be more ornamental than 
this tree for shrubberies and pleasure grounds, as it is often covered 
with a profusion of flowers long before other trees show signs of 
budding. It is a native of Mount Pindus in Arcadia ; but thrives 
so well in an English soil, that few trees are more commonly to be 
met with, or are better known : its wood is applied to various useful 
purposes, and from its resistance to damp and wet, it is particu¬ 
larly valuable in moist situations. 

Class VIII. —Octandria 

Comprises various shrubs, both foreign and native. Among 
the foreign are the balm of Gilead ( amyris Gileademis ), which 
grows in several parts of Abyssinia and Syria; the sugar maple 
of North America, and the rosewood tree in Jamaica. As a na¬ 
tive plant we select the large flowered willow herb ( epilobium 
hirsutum , fig. 8), very commonly called “ codlins and cream,” 
from its peculiar smell. The calyx consists of four divisions, very 
pointed; the corolla is composed of four petals, which are of a 
deep rose colour: the ends of these petals are termed claws, and 
by them the corolla is united to the receptacle. 


BOTANY. 


5 49 


Class IX.— Enneandria 


Includes several foreign plants, such as cinnamon (laurus cinna- 
momum), bay ( laurus nobilis ), and camphor (laurus camphor a?) The 
rhubarb (rheum palmatum ), which is a native of Turkey in Asia, 
and is perhaps the most generally useful of all drugs, must not be 
confounded with the garden rhubarb (rheum rhaponticum ), which 
is quite different from the medical one, though both are members 
of the same family. 

We have only one plant that belongs to this class growing wild 
in this country; it is the flowering rush (butomus umbellatus), or 
water gladiole, (fig. 9.) It is a remarkably handsome plant; 
sometimes rising beautifully from the water under which it grows, 
or spreading its rich pink flowers in stately clusters by the sides of 
running streams, or the margins of lakes and rivers" Twenty or 
thirty little stalks rise from a brown shrivelled-looking calyx, each 
supporting a bright rose-coloured blossom of six petals, three 
large, and three small. Within this are nine white stamens with 
brown anthers, and they surround six pistils of the same colour. 

Class X.— Decandria 

Includes several trees of foreign growth, as lignum vitae tree 
(guaiacum officinale ), logwood (hwmatoxylon campechianum ), 
mahogany (sicietenia mahogani ), and Brazil wood (cajsalpinia 
brasiliensis), all natives of the West Indies. There are also vari¬ 
ous plants and flowers common in this country. 

There is a plant belonging to this class which exhibts a very 
curious instance of vegetable irritability; it is called the fly-trap 
of Venus, and is a native of America, (see fig. 10.) At the bot¬ 
tom of the footstalk of this curious plant are several leaves, 
divided into two lobes at the extremity, having long teeth on the 
margin like the antennee of insects, and armed with six spines : 
these lie spread upon the ground round the stem, and are so irri¬ 
table, that when a fly happens to light upon a leaf, it immediately 
folds up and crushes it to death. 

Class XI.— Dodecandria 

Contains all those plants which have from twelve to nineteen 
stamens fixed to the receptacle. 

This class is the most unsatisfactory of the twenty-four: it 


550 


YOUNG MAN^ COMPANION. 


might almost be called the imperfect class, as even the few spc^ 
cimcns that belong to it vary very much according to the soil. 

The plant we have selected (fig. 11,) as our example, is 
very handsome ; it is called the purple-spiked loose-strife (lythrum 
salicaria ), and grows abundantly by the sides of rivers, and in 
marshy places. The flowers are in whorls, on long spikes ; not only 
do they differ as to the number of stamens, but many are 
altogether imperfect. The corolla consists of six petals ; and the 
colour is very fine, sometimes purple, at others bright lilac. 

Class XII.— Icosandria 

Is known by having twenty or more stamens fixed to the inside 
of the calyx. To this class belong a great variety of fruit trees, 
such as the apple, ( pyrus mains), cherry ( prunus cerasus), pear 
(pyrus communis ), plum (prunus domesticus), raspberry (rubus 
Idceus ), nectarine and peach (amygdalus Persica.) Also various 
shrubs and herbs, such as roses, strawberries, raspberries, &c. 

Myrtus pimenta, the pimento, Jamaica-pepper myrtle, or 
alspice (fig. 12), grows upon the mountains, and can hardly be 
cultivated. There are two genera, which contain a great number 
of species, and are at the same time very numerous. It is a tree 
thirty feet high, with a straight trunk, and smooth brown bark ; 
leaves resembling those of the bay tree, but larger; greenish 
flowers in large bunches; berries spherical, crowned with a calyx; 
they are chiefly imported into England from Jamaica, whence the 
name of Jamaica pepper. 

Class XIII.— Polyandria 

Comprehends those plants that have more than twenty stamens 
attached to the receptacle, as the poppy ( papaver ), and tea tree 
(i thea ), &c. 

The Spanish gum cistus ( cistus ladaniferus , fig. 13), has 
smooth branches covered with a reddish brown bark. The leaves 
are narrow, lanceolate, - green above, white underneath; corolla, 
pistils large, roundish, white, with a large purple spot at their base. 
The whole plant exudes a sweet glutinous substance, which has a 
strong balsamic smell. 

Class XIV.— Didynamia 

Is distinguished by four stamens in a flower, of which two are 
longer than the others. 



BOTANY. 


551 


We take as our specimen (fig. 14,) a piece of the common white 
nettle (lamium album ); the flowers surround the stem in a ring- 
like form, and each ring is composed of about eighteen or twenty 
white flowers. The blossom of these flowers is monopetalous, 
and gaping or ringent; being divided into two parts at the border, 
but entire at the base, where it is united into a little round tube, 
which connects it with the calyx ; the upper half of the corolla is 
arched ; and if you turn it back, you will find resting under this 
arch two pair of stamens rising one above the other, with one 
pistil ; the former fixed to the corolla, the latter springing from 
the receptacle. 


Class XV.— Tetuadynamia 

Is known by having six stamens in the flower, four of which are 
longer than the other two. The plants in this class are all eatable, 
as the cabbage ( brassica oleracea ), turnip ( brassica rapa ), and 
watercress (: nasturtium officinale ), &c. 

The common wall-flower ( cheirantkus cheiri , fig. 15), is our best 
example, because the size of its flower makes each part of the 
fructification easier for examination. The calyx is composed of 
four straight pointed leaves, adhering very closely together, until 
the flower is fully blown, when they fall off; it is deciduous. Two 
of these leaves enlarge at the bottom, and project as if forced out 
by some inner substance, which is literally the case, for, within it, 
at the base of the shorter stamens, are the nectaries, the juice of 
which is very perceptible by stripping down the calyx. The 
corolla is composed of four petals, rounded and equal in size, 
placed exactly opposite each other, and inserted into the recepta¬ 
cle by claws as long as the cup. The stamens are six in number, 
four long and two short. 

Class XVI.— Monadelphia. 

Here the stamens are united by their filaments into one set, 
forming a case round the lower part of the pistils, but separating at 
the top. There is none more useful than the cotton plant 
( qossypium lierbaceum .) The seed vessels, or cotton pods, con¬ 
tain a soft vegetable down, which envelopes the seeds. 

The musk-mallow ( malva moschata , fig. 16), so called from its 
peculiar scent, shall serve as our example. The calyx is double, 
as if it w r ere two cups placed one within the other, the outer con¬ 
sisting of three leaves, narrow, the inner of one leaf with five 
divisions, larger and broader ; the petals are five, of a delicate lilac 


o52 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


or pale rose colour, fleshy towards the claws, where they unite to 
the tube, which supports the stamens; the latter are very nume¬ 
rous. The receptacle rises through this tube like a little column ; 
and if with a needle you gently slit up this small tube to which 
the stamens are attached, you will perceive the seeds ranged 
beautifully in a circle round the base of the receptacle, which is 
long and supports the pistil; this latter branches at the summit 
into several bright purple hair-like feathers, corresponding in num¬ 
ber to the seeds. 


Class XVII.— Diadelphia. 

In this class the corollas are papilionaceous, or like a butterfly, 
as the blossoms of a pea ( lathyrus ); the stamens are connected 
by the filaments, but divided into two sets, one of which is thicker, 
and forms a case round the pistil; the other is smaller, and leans 
towards the pistil. Many plants well known to us are compre¬ 
hended in it; such as beans {vicia faba ), vetches ( vicia sativa,) 
clover {trifolium pratense), furze (ulex Europceus,) &c. 

We Avill take a sweet pea {lathyrus odoratus , fig. 17), for our 
example. The outer or upper petal is called the standard or 
helmet; it is larger than the others, and covers them before the 
bud unfolds ; :t is fixed by a claw to the receptacle. The two 
sides of the petals are termed wings; they stand on each side of 
the standard, and are also fixed by claws to the receptacle. The 
fifth petal encloses the stamens and pistil; it is called the keel, 
from its fancied resemblance to that part of a boat, being hollow, 
and protecting the internal fructification from injury. On remov¬ 
ing this keel, you perceive the flower contains ten stamens ; one 
parcel behind, consisting of nine, and a single and shorter stamen 
placed in front, forming the other. 

Class XVIII.— Polyadelphia. 

I he stamens are here united by their filaments into more than 
two sets or parcels. Several foreign fruits belong to this class, 
such as the orange {citrus aurantium), the lemon {citrus limo- 
nium ), the citron {citrus medico), and the chocolate trees 
{theobroma cacao.) 

We possess but one native tribe in Polyadelphia, the St. John's 
wort {hypericum), but it comprises a great many different species. 
In all the flowers, the stamens appear like the hairy part of 
little paint brushes. 


BOTANY* 


553 

There are eight varieties of this plant; tustan (Jiypericum androsw- 
mum, fig. 18,) will serve as a very good example for all. The 
calyx is divided into five leaves, and placed below the germen ; 
the corolla consists of five petals of a bright gold colour ; the 
stamens are very numerous, separated into three distinct parcels, 
and inserted into the receptacle; which is the distinguishing 
mark of the third order of this class. Its pistils are three; the 
pericarp is a pretty round pulpy capsule, containing as many cells 
as it is supported by styles ; this little seed vessel is at first of a 
bright red, but when perfectly ripe becomes quite black : the 
leaves too are very red in autumn, and when held up to the sun 
appear to be full of holes; but these spots are only bladders, con¬ 
taining a quantity of clear balsamic fluid, which was formerly 
esteemed of great value in medicine, as its name implies ; for 
tustan is merely a corruption of toutesain , bestowed on this plant by 
the French in former times, from their considering its balsam a 
universal all-heal. One species, the perforated St. John's w r ort 
(hypericum perforatum,) is so called from its leaves containing such 
large bladders filled with this fluid, that they really appear as if 
full of holes. 


Class XIX. —Syngenesia 

Consists of common flowers, as the dandelion {leontodon taraxa¬ 
cum), &c., and they are called compound, because each single 
flower consists of a collection of little flowers or florets, attached 
to the same broad receptacle, and contained within one calyx. 

The common dandelion ( leontodon taraxacum , fig. 19), is thus 
described:—leaves varying from pinnatifid to nearly entire, but 
notched and toothed ; a hollow milky scape, supporting a single 
yellow flower; the lower scales of the calyx turning back; after 
flowering, the down assumes a spherical form. 

Class XX. —Gynandria. 

In this class, the stamens are attached to the pistil; several 
well-known field plants, of the orchis tribe, belong to it. 

The bee orchis (ophrys apifera, fig. SO), is thus described :—a 
leafy stem about a foot high ; alternate, lanceolate, sheathing 
leaves ; the three outer petals lanceolate, expanding, purple, marked 
with three green nerves ; the two inner petals linear, villous, and 
green ; the lip of the nectary large, roundish, purple, mixed with 
yellow ; five lobes, bent inwards, a double variegated yellow spot 
at the base ; the upper lip of the nectary resembling a proboscis. 

4 B 


554 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


Cl ass XXL— Moncecia 

Contains those plants which have flowers of different kinds on the 
same plant, some bearing pistils, and others stamens only. 
Among those of native growth may be reckoned the oak ( querous 
robur ), birch (betula alba), alder ( alnus glutinosa ), and pine 
( pinus ), &c. In the list of foreign plants may be noticed the 
bread-fruit tree (artocarpus incisa ), the cork tree (< quercus suber), 
which is only another species of oak, the castor oil plant ( ricinus 
communis), and many others. 

Euphorbia peplus, common spurge or wart-wort, (fig. 21,) is an 
example of this class. The genus derived its name from Euphor- 
bus, physician to King John. The leaves are inversely egg- 
shaped ; seeds dotted; root taper; stem erect, mostly branched 
at the base ; leafy. The juice of this and other species are used 
for destroying warts. 

Class XXII.— Dicecia 

Consists of those plants which have stamens on one plant, and 
pistils on another. There are many varieties of willow to be met 
with, all of which belong to this class. 

The misseltoe (mscum album, fig. 22,) is perhaps the most 
curious of all the native productions in this class: it is what is 
called a parasite, which means, that it grows from, or is attached to, 
a stronger and larger plant; it fixes itself generally to apple trees, 
but also grows on the hawthorn, hazel, and maple; it has never 
been known to grow on the ground, though if its berries are 
merely rubbed against the bark of trees, they will take root and 
flourish. The two plants, which separately contain flowers with 
stamens and pistils, grow opposite to each other ; the one withers 
and dies, the other produces seed, which is contained in a clear 
round berry of a glutinous nature, by means of which it adheres 
to the branches or bark of a tree, striking its root into it in a sin¬ 
gular manner, and deriving nourishment from the juices of the 
foster plant to which it has attached itself. It presents a curious 
appearance, its yellowish green leaves contrasting so strongly with 
the deeper colour of those that grow by its side, 'though by this 
very contrast it helps to ornament the tree to whose support it is 
indebted for life and existence. The misseltoe was held very sacred 
by the ancient Eritons, and is at the present day used to ornament 
farm houses at Christmas. 


botany. 


55 5 


Class XXIII. —Polygamia. 

The twenty-third class comprehends those plants which have at 
least two and sometimes three kinds of flowers. 1. Some with 
pistils and stamens in the same flower. 2. Others having stamens 
only. 3. Or, having flowers with pistils only. There is no pro¬ 
duction more serviceable than the plantain tree ( musa paradisica), 
which is of this kind. 1 he fruit is of a pale yellow colour, and 
is produced in bunches so large as to weigh about forty pounds. 

^ Phe wall pellitory ( parietana officinalis, fig. 23,) is a specimen 
of an English plant of this class. It grows abundantly on the 
churchyard walls. The flowers are minute, and seated in pairs 
between the stalk and the base of the leaves. It has no petals, 
but each of the flowers is composed of a cleft calyx, green and 
sometimes tinged with rose colour. Some of the flowers contain 
four stamens and a pistil; others no stamens, only a pistil of a 
bright red colour. It is prized by the formers from its leaves be¬ 
ing destructive to weasels. 

Class XXIV. —Ckyptogamia. 

This class contains several numerous families of plants, whose 
flowers and fructification are but imperfectly known. It is 
divided into the following orders :—1. Miscellaneae; 2. Filices; 
o. Musci; 4. Algae ; 5. Fungi. 

The fructification in the Miscellaneoc consists of an assemblage 
of target-shaped substances, on pediles, which form several 
whorls round the upper part of the cylindric stem of the plant, 
thus constituting a terminating spike. The horse-tail ( equisetum ), 
differs materially from the ferns. It derives its name from equns, 
horse; seta , hair or bristles ; which latter it greatly resembles. Early 
in the year this singular plant protrudes from the earth a sort of club- 
shaped head. Within the capsules are contained the obscure part 
of its fructification, and if when ripe one case is detached and 
shaken, it will be found to contain a quantity of powder. This 
is the seed, but all the parts composing the organs which produce 
it, and which are necessary to the formation of the future plant, 
are too minute for common microscopes. 

One species of horse-tail ( equisetum arvense, fig. 24), grows com¬ 
monly in corn fields and sandy districts ; another is called the great 
water horse-tail ( equisetum fiumatile), and grows by the side of 
stagnant pools, small streams, and marshy grounds; but their 
general character is alike, consisting of a roundish hollow stem, 


556 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


divided into joints, which are surrounded by upright streaked 
sheaths, notched into a peaked or fringed border. The joints of 
the stalk rest within these sheaths as if in a cup, and from the 
base of each sheath proceed rings of bristly leaves. The stalk of 
the rough horse-tail (equisetum hyemale ), is imported from Holland 
for its use in polishing wood, ivory, marble, and brass. It is 
commonly known by the name of Dutch rushes. 

Filices , or ferns, have their fructification, in general, dispersed in 
spots or lines, on the under surface of the leaves ; but in some in¬ 
stances it occurs in spikes. 

The structure of the Musci , or mosses, their modes of increase, 
and organs of fructification, are not yet so thoroughly understood 
as to enable us to describe them in a manner perfectly satisfactory. 
The male flowers are merely anthers, with scarcely any filaments, 
disposed on an horizontal receptacle, and when ripe discharging a 
fine elastic powder. The female fertile flowers, or pistils of 
mosses, are usually in a separate flower from the stamens. 

The Algce comprise the lichens and sea-weeds. They scarcely 
admit of the distinction of root, stem, and leaf; much less are 
we enabled to describe the parts of the flowers. The genera 
therefore are distinguished by the situation of what are supposed 
to be the flowers or seeds, and by the resemblance the whole plant 
bears to some other known substance. 

The Fungi includes all productions commonly known by the 
name of mushrooms, as well as a numerous tribe of similar vege¬ 
table bodies. Their seeds are borne either in gills or tubes, or 
attached to fibres, or to a spongy substance. The generic charac¬ 
ters are taken from their external form, or from the disposition of 
their seeds. 

Those stately and beautiful trees, known by the general appella¬ 
tion of Palms , were placed by Linnaeus in a class appendaged to 
the other twenty-four, probably because, from the vague informa¬ 
tion possessed in his time respecting their fructification, he could 
not decide which would be their proper place in his artificial 
system. He emphatically terms them “ the princes of the 
vegetable kingdom,'’ 1 and describes them as trees or shrubs with 
lofty unbranched stems, bearing on their summits garlands of ever¬ 
green leaves, called fronds, resembling in figure those of the ferns, 
and having their spokes of flowers protruded from a spathe or 
sheath. 


MINERALOGY. 


557 


CHAPTER XIV, 

MINERALOGY. 


Mineralogy, in its common acceptation, implies the description 
and classification of all those inorganic substances termed mine¬ 
rals. In its most extensive sense it includes Geology, which treats 
of the structural formation and relative position of the rocks or 
mountain masses of which the earth is composed ; and Mineralogy, 
properly so called, which consists of a minute description of the 
various mineral substances, and a classical arrangement of them 
according to their external characters. 

Section I.— Geology. 

In examining the rocks and mountain masses, of which the earth 
appears to be composed, so far as science has disclosed them to our 
view, we are naturally led to some considerations on the origin of 
the world, and its primordial state. Yet it is evident that this 
subject is surrounded with apparently insurmountable difficulties, 
and that a rational and consistent theory of the earth (as it is 
called,) can be framed only on principles derived from a very 
advanced state of the science. 

It is only since the researches of the Geological Society (establish¬ 
ed about the year 1811), that this science has been pursued on any 
substantial basis. The origin of this society may be traced to a 
comparatively trivial circumstance. A few individuals met, in 
consequence of a desire to communicate to each other the re¬ 
sult of their observations, and to examine how far the opinions 
maintained by the writers on geology were in conformity with the 
facts presented by nature. They likewise hoped, that a new im¬ 
pulse might, through their exertions, be given to this science ; and 
with this view, shortly after their establishment, they drew up and 
distributed a series of inquiries, calculated in their opinion to ex¬ 
cite a greater degree of attention to this important study, than it 
had yet received in this country ; and to serve as a guide to the geo¬ 
logical traveller, by pointing out some of the various objects which 


558 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


it is his province to examine. The encouragement and attention 
which the association met with, exceeded all expectation. It was 
soon joined by names of high respectability in the literary world. 
The commencement of a collection was made, which soon considera¬ 
bly increased, and afforded, by its judicious arrangement, every 
facility of being consulted. Maps, plans, and sections were libe¬ 
rally contributed by the various members, and soon presented a 
most valuable store of information, particularly relating to the 
geology of this country. This store rapidly increased; a 
library was formed ; the transactions of various sittings were 
regularly noticed; and, in general, a short extract of the papers 
given in the philosophical journals. This rapid progress was, 
undoubtedly, owing in a considerable measure to the unremitting 
and well directed exertions of the society's worthy president, Mr. 
G. B. Greenough, whose extensive acquaintance with the pheno¬ 
mena of nature, both in Britain and abroad, joined with an un¬ 
bounded liberality in communicating his knowledge to the lovers 
of science, most eminently qualified him for the chair. 

Since then the science has been materially advanced by the 
labours of Macculloch, Conybeare, Phillips, Buckland, De la 
B&che, Webster, Winch, and several other members of the Lon¬ 
don Society; Brogniart and Von Buch have revealed many 
wonders in French, Swiss, and Italian geology; and the two 
Cuviers, Blainville, Lamarcke, and Defranee, have thrown surpris¬ 
ing light on the zoology of fossils. 

The proper object of geology is to discover the circumstances 
under which the beds composing the crust of our earth were 
formed. With this view it is needful that the various substances 
should undergo a laborious practical examination. Although ths 
earth is upwards of 4,000 miles to its centre, yet with all the 
efforts which have been made, it has never been penetrated more 
than one mile: our knowledge must therefore be very limited. 
The most careless observer of nature must, however, know that 
the earth is not a solid mass of an individual substance, but that 
sand and sandstone, clay and limestone, are universally found in 
all parts of the world. 

I rom a partial examination of these various deposits, we might 
be led to suppose that they were indiscriminately situated in rela¬ 
tion to each other, but the investigations of miners insensibly led 
them to trace the super-position of rocks. It was early discovered 
by these practical geologists, that certain ores were always found 
in certain rocks, and that certain other rocks accompanied those in 
which the ores appeared. 

The crust of the earth is composed of so many beds, that geo- 


MINERALOGY. 


559 


logists have been compelled to class them in orders, formations, 
and sub-formations. A series of beds which appear to have been 
formed by nearly the same cause, and operated upon subsequently 
by the same agents, are united by geologists, and called a sub¬ 
formation. Several of these sub-formations, when united 
together, make a formation, and a union of formations an order. 
Now a sub-formation may in one place contain more beds than in 
another, or it may be different in mineralogical characters. A 
rock which is usually found in a certain position, may in particular 
localities be entirely wanting, or be found in so different a charac¬ 
ter as to be scarcely recognised. In one situation we may observe 
a series of rocks to consist of a great variety of beds very 
different in their mineralogical appearance; but, in another place, 
the same situation in the general succession of rocks may be 
occupied by but few beds, and these greatly resembling each other 
in appearance and constitution. 

The greater part of rocks are stratified (that is, arranged in 
strata, or layers,) and at an angle more or less inclined to the plane 
of the horizon ; but this is not the universal position of stratified 
beds. Not unfrequently they take a basin shape, as may be seen 
in many of the coal districts, and in the secondary rocks. The 
natural position of the unstratified rocks is below all others, but 
they sometimes intrude themselves among those which, in an un¬ 
disturbed position, lie above them. We therefore find them in 
nearly all parts of the series, sometimes intersecting rocks in the 
form of veins, and at other times super-posing them, as though 
they had flowed over them in a manner similar to the lavas of the 
present day. And not unfrequently they have been instrumental 
in forming mountains of very considerable elevation, from the in¬ 
fluence they have exerted upon rocks, tilting the horizontal strata 
in some instances, and in others so disrupting them as to expose 
them to the influence of denuding waters. 

The lower beds of that portion of the earth’s crust with which 
we are acquainted are destitute of all remains of organized beings 
or fossils, and are called the primitive or primary rocks, because 
they are supposed to have been formed before the creation of 
things that have life. The unstratified rocks are also destitute of 
fossils, as we might expect, for they are almost unanimously attri¬ 
buted to the action of fire. But, excepting the few stratified 
beds called primitive, and the unstratified, nearly all others con¬ 
tain organic remains, some of which are of a most remarkable 
character, and now extinct. It has also been discovered that every 
fossiliferous formation contains certain organic remains peculiar to 
itself, wherever it may be found. The value of fossils, therefore, 


560 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


is immense; it enables us at once to decide upon the relative posi¬ 
tion of a bed, whatever may be its local situation ; and to 
recognise it as well from a few of its organic remains, as though 
we had examined the country in which it occurs. It has, therefore, 
become an object of great importance to geology that the fossils 
of every bed should be collected. Naturalists have been induced 
to extend their investigations into the bowels of the earth; a new 
world has been opened to inquiry ; a race of beings, before 
entirely unknown, have been discovered, and a datum established 
by which every geological problem may be solved. 

The few geological facts at present known and established, are 
the result of the labours and investigations of many years, but 
the progress of inquiry has been so slow, that up to this 
period, there has been no generally received classification of 
rocks. The first attempt of this kind was made by Werner, about 
the year 1774. His classification was formed upon the presence 
or absence of organic remains ; for the lower rocks, being destitute of 
them, were supposed to have existed before the creation of things 
which had life, and were hence called the primitive or primary 
class, and those which possessed them, the secondary. 

The Wernerian classification was universally used in this 
country till the publication of “ Conybeare’s Geology of Eng¬ 
land and Wales.” In this work a new classification was adopted, 
and the crust of the earth divided into five portions, forming the 
following classes. 1. The superior, containing the tertiary de¬ 
posit. 2. The supermedial, containing the chalk, greensand, 
wealden, oolitic, and red sandstone formations. 3. The medial, 
containing the coal measures, carboniferous limestone, millstone 
grit, and old red sandstone formations. 4. The submedial, com¬ 
prising the transition rocks. 5. The inferior, containing the 
primitive. A recent arrangement, and that which promises to be 
more generally received, is that which divides rocks into stra¬ 
tified and unstratified, as follows. 

Stratified Rocks.— 1. Alluman group, peat-bous, sands, 
coral islands, &c. & 

2. Diluvian group , transparent boulders and blocks, gravel, &c. 

3. Super cretaceous group , upper and lower fresh-water, and 
marine formations. 

4. Cretaceous group , chalk, greensand, and wealden rocks. 

5. Oolitic group , oolites and lias. 

6. Red sandstone group , red marie and sandstone, magnesian 
limestone, and red conglomerate. 

7. Carboniferous group , coal measures, carboniferous limestone, 
and old red sandstone. 


MINERALOGY. 


561 


8. GrauicacJce group, grauwacke and grauwacke slates. 

9. Lowest fossiliferous group, argillaceous and other slates. 

10. Non-fossiliferous stratified group, mica slate, gneiss, See. 

Unstratified Rocks.—1. Volcanic group, lavas, &c. 

2. Trappean group, greenstone, basalt, porphyry, amygda¬ 
loid, &c. 

3. Serpentine group , diallage rock and serpentine. 

4. Granitic group, sienite, granite, &c. 

The unstratified rocks are extensively distributed over the 
globfe, and are found in strata of all ages. Near Friedau, in 
Styria, trachytic conglomerates superpose tertiary deposits ; in the 
north of Ireland, immense veins, or dykes, of basalt traverse the 
chalk ; and in our own country the traps are associated with 
nearly all formations. The unstratified rocks are usually sup¬ 
posed to have originated from the action of subterranean fire, and 
hence it is we find them in veins as well as beds. They chiefly 
consist of the granitic, serpentine, and trappean rocks. 

The Granitic Rocks are chiefly composed of quartz, felspar, and 
mica; and two or more of these are necessary. Felspar is gene¬ 
rally most abundant, but that mineral, as well as all others which 
enter into their composition, varies in its proportions, and is some¬ 
times absent. Sienite, which is a variety of granite, differs from 
that rock in having hornblend as a component part, instead of 
mica. This rock occurs in Scotland, and in the Malvern hills, but 
particularly in Charnwood forest. 

Diallage and Serpentine are intimately connected together, and 
pass into each other. Diallage consists chiefly in diallage and 
felspar. Serpentine, so called from its peculiarly variegated lustre, 
resembling a serpent’s skin, is a simple mineral substance. Its 
fracture is either splintery or granular, and has a bright lustrous ap¬ 
pearance when first broken. It is not extensively distributed, and 
in England it is only found at the Lizard Point. ♦ 

Trappean Rocks. —The principal rocks of this class are—clay- 
stone and clinkstone, chiefly composed of felspar; greenstone, 
composed of augite and hornblend ; and basalt, consisting of 
augite and titaniferousiron ; but the latter isnot definitely described. 
The simple trappean rocks become porphyritic by the admixtuie 
of quartz or felspar. The porphyries are known by the name of 
their base ; thus we have claystone, porphyry, and others. 

Sometimes the trappean rocks take a columnar structure ; the 
Giant’s Causeway and Fingal’s Cave, equally celebrated for their 
picturesque beauty and their singular geological appearance, are 
instances. 

To obtain an accurate acquaintance with the characters and 

4 c 


5'62 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


superposition of rocks will occupy some time and attention. But 
all the fundamental principles of the science may be summed up 
in the four following propositions:—1. The crust of the earth is 
composed of a series of rocks, some of which are stratified, and some 
unstratified. 2. The stratified rocks have a regular succession, but 
are often disturbed by the unstratified, which occur in all parts of 
the series. 3. Nearly all the stratified rocks, excepting a few 
which are found at the bottom of the series, contain organic remains. 
4. Every bed which contains organic remains has some that are 
peculiar to it, and by them it may always be distinguished. 

Section II.— Mineralogy. 

Minerals, strictly speaking, are those substances which are found 
in mines, but in a more extended view, the term is meant to cha¬ 
racterise that class of inanimate bodies found in or upon the earth, 
and derived either from animal or vegetable origin. Their gene¬ 
ral characters may be thus defined: they possess neither life nor 
motion, nor do they exhibit any phenomena dependent on external 
organization. They may increase in size, but their growth is 
exceedingly different from the growth of organic beings. The 
mineral kingdom is divided into four parts, namelv, 1. Earths 
and Stones. 2. Salts. 3. Combustibles. 4. Metals. 

EARTHS AND STONES. 

There are nine simple Earths, to which mineralogists have as¬ 
signed the following names :—1. Silex. 2. Alumine. 3. Zircon. 
4. Glucine. 5. Yttria. 6. Barytes. 7. Strontian. 8. Lime. 
9. Magnesia. These nine earths enter, in different proportions, 
into the composition of our globe; their natural colour is white, 
and whatever other colours are found in them proceed from inflam¬ 
mable, or metallic substances. 

Silex is a Latin word signifying./?/???. It is much more abundant 
than any of the other earths, being the chief ingredient of rocks 
and sand. It is an essential part of glass, the purest sand being 
used in the manufacture of that valuable article. 

Alumine earth is so called from its forming the basis of common 
alum. In fuller's earth, the presence of alumine may be easily 
discovered, by its having a smell when breathed on peculiar to all 
clayey substances. Its weight is twice that of water. 

Zircon , when pure, is a rough powder, insipid, and not to be 
dissolved in water. 

Glucine takes its name from a Greek word, signifying sweet; 
and forms a soft, light, and white powder, with a sweetish taste. 


MINERALOGY. 


563 


Yttria, when divested of those substances with which it is com¬ 
bined, is a fine white powder, without any smell; and is five times 
heavier than water. 

Barytes in its pure state is very heavy, but is never found un¬ 
mixed with other substances. Like alkalies, it has the property of 
changing blue vegetable colours into green. 

Strontian is an earth which has some of the properties of 
barytes, as it converts blue vegetable colours into green, but is 
not poisonous. 

Lime , or calcareous earth, when unmixed with any other sub¬ 
stance, is of a white colour, and moderately hard substance, though 
easily reducible to powder. When put into water it quickly ab¬ 
sorbs it, becomes hot, and falls into powder. 

Magnesia is a very fine light white earth, and is found in 
various clays, stones, and salts, particularly Epsom salts, which 
consist of magnesia in union with sulphuric acid. 

Stones are divided into hard and soft. 

Hard Stones are those which will scratch glass, as gems, &c. 

Gems are precious stones, for the most part transparent, and have 
a shining glassy appearance. Their different colours are occasioned 
by the metals with which they are impregnated. The most 
valuable of all the species are the diamond, the ruby, the emerald, 
the sapphire, &c. 

The Diamond is the hardest of all bodies, and is perfectly trans¬ 
parent, and infinitely more brilliant than crystal. 

Soft stones, or those which will not scratch glass. 

Common Clay , usually classed under this head, is found in nearly 
every country in the world. The peculiar quality of this substance 
is to become so hard by heat, that it will even strike fire with steel; 
and its ductility has rendered it an indispensable article of utility 
to mankind. 

Clay Slate, or Roofing Slate, is a kind of stone of foliated texture, 
and greyish, black, brown, or bluish colour; it breaks into splinters, 
and does not adhere to the tongue. Vast beds of slate occur in 
different parts of the world. 

Mica , Glimmer, or Muscovy Glass, is a mineral substance ca¬ 
llable of being divided into elastic leaves so thin as to be quite 
transparent. It is used in Siberia and Russia to supply the place 
of windows. 

Basalt is a coarse-grained, blackish stone, generally found in 
groups of large columns. The Giant’s Causeway on the coast of 
Antrim, in Ireland, and the Cave of Fingal, in one of the western 
islands of Scotland, are the most remarkable assemblages of basaltic 
columns that are known. 


564 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Common Limestone is harder and heavier than chalk, of a greyish 
colour, and is found in most countries. It forms nearly the whole 
mountainous districts of Derbyshire and Shropshire, and in it are 
found numerous veins of lead ore and other minerals. 

Marble is a species of compact close-grained limestone, capable 
of receiving a high polish. 

SALTS. 

Potash is an alkaline substance, and exists under the form of 
salt in vegetable substances, which is obtained by burning them. 
It is used in many arts and manufactures, as scouring, washing, 
bleaching, dyeing, glass-making, etc. 

Nitre, or Saltpetre, is found in a state of incrustation on the 
surface of the earth, in some parts of India, Africa, and Spain. 
Since the invention of gunpowder, which is chiefly composed of 
nitre, immense quantities are annually consumed. 

Soda very much resembles potash, and is used for the same pur¬ 
poses. It is obtained from sea-water, and from the ashes of plants 
growing on the sea-shore. 

Common Salt , or muriate of soda, is found in most countries 
in a solid state, though by far the greatest part is obtained from 
sea-water. 

COMBUSTIBLES. 

Common Sulphur , or brimstone, is a yellow, dry, and brittle 
substance. In burning it yields a suffocating smell, well known 
under the denomination of sulphureous. In the composition of 
gunpowder it is used to render the mixture of charcoal and nitre 
more inflammable. 

Plumbago , or black lead, is an inflammable mineral, of a dark 
iron-grey colour, with a strong metallic lustre, which, when handled, 
is soft and greasy. It is of great use to artists, who, if deprived of 
black lead, would find great difficulty in making their sketches. 

Naphtha , or rock oil, is a yellowish or bituminous fluid, of 
strong odour. Its peculiar property is to burn with great readi¬ 
ness, and on the shores of the Caspian Sea the inhabitants burn it 
instead of oil in their lamps. • 

Petroleum is a bitumen of greater consistency than naphtha, of 
black, brown, or greenish colour, which, when exposed to the air, 
assumes the appearance of tar, and is called mineral tar. 

Coal is found in beds, or strata, and chiefly occurs in those coun¬ 
tries which lie nearly in the same latitudes with Great Britain. The 
largest coal-field with which we are acquainted is in the south of 
Wales ; it is nearly one hundred square miles in extent, and pro- 


MINERALOGY. 


565 


ducing on the average the amazing quantity of nearly sixty-four 
million tons of coal in every square mile. The uses of coal as fuel 
are too well known to require any observations; and it has lately been 
employed in producing gas, which is a new invention of the highest 
importance. 

METALS. 

Metals, when found combined with other mineral substances, 
have the name of ores. They are found deposited in veins, at 
various depths, in the earth; more generally in mountainous than 
in plain or level districts. When a vein of any ore is discovered, 
the surface of the earth is penetrated to it, and the vein is followed 
in whatever direction it may lie. The hollow places thus formed 
are called mines, and those who work in them are denominated 
miners. After the metallic ores are drawn from the mine, they 
have to undergo several processes before they are fit for use, and 
are generally first washed in a running water to cleanse them of 
earthy particles. 

The Metals form a most important class of natural bodies. The 
number of metals known, or presumed to exist, amounts to forty. 
They are by close analogies connected with each other, and by re¬ 
mote analogies with the inflammable solids. 

The present classification of metals includes what were formerly 
treated as simple earths and alkalies, but which are now found to be 
oxides of certain metals, and capable of being reduced by the 
voltaic battery to their metallic state. The earths are lime, mag¬ 
nesia, barytes, strontites, alumine, glucina, zirconia, silica, and 
yttria; the alkalies are potass, soda, and ammonia, now found 
among the metals, under analogous names. 

The characteristic properties of metals are lustre, opacity, 
combustibility, and power to conduct electricity. They differ 
much in their mechanical properties, hardness, ductility, and 
tenacity; by slow cooling they assume regular crystalline forms, 
usually cubical or octahedral. Formerly considerable specific 
gravity was deemed essential to metallic substances; but Sir 
H. Davy has discovered bodies lighter than even water, which 
agree in all other essential qualities with metals, and must there¬ 
fore be arranged with them. The most inflammable metals produce 
alkalies, alkaline earths, and earths, by combustion. Other metals 
afford the substances called oxides, analogous to earths ; and a few 
are converted into acids. The metals that produce alkalies are 
potassium and sodium ; the alkaline earths are formed from metals, 
called barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesium. The metals 
supposed to be contained in common earths, are silicium, aluminum. 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


5G6 


zirconium, yttrium, and glucinum. The metals that produce 
oxides, and which in common language are called metals, are 25 in 
number, as follow: manganese, zinc, tin, iron, lead, antimony, 
bismuth, tellurium, cobalt, copper, nickel, uranium, osmium, tung¬ 
sten, titanium, columbium, cerium, palladium, iridium, rhodium, 
mercury, silver, gold and platinum. 

The metals that produce acids are, arsenic, molybdenum, and 
chromium. 

The common metals, by their fusibility, malleability, hardness, 
and durability, are most important instruments in the arts; 
their uses are essential to the progress of civilization; and most 
of the comforts, and many of the luxuries and refinements of 
social life, are connected with their application. We have space 
to describe only a few of those most in common use. 

Tin is procured from the native combination of this metal with 
oxygen, (called tin-stones, or oxides of tin,) by ignition with 
charcoal or carbonaceous substances. The colour of tin is white, 
resembling that of silver. It is harder than lead, and softer than 
zinc. Its specific gravity is 7’291 ; it is very malleable, and may 
be extended into extremely thin leaves. 

Iron is obtained from various ores, (in which it exists combined 
with oxygen,) by intense ignition with carbonaceous substances. 
The purest iron is made from an ore called haematites, by ignition 
with charcoal; and the metal is hammered while soft, and exposed 
to air, till it becomes ductile. The specific gravity of iron is 
about 7*7. Its malleability, though considerable, is less than 
that of gold, silver, and copper, but its ductility and tenacity are 
greater; it may be drawn in extremely fine wire, and a wire of 
0’078 of an inch in diameter will support 549 - 25 lbs. 

Lead is chiefly procured from certain ores in which it is com¬ 
bined with sulphur. The sulphur is expelled by a continued heat 
in a reverberatory furnace, and the metal is obtained by fusion. 
Lead is the softest of the common metals. It is very malleable, 
but not very ductile. Its point of fusion is 612°; but an 
intense heat is required for its evaporation. 

Copper has a red colour; is a little harder than silver; its 
specific gravity is about 8‘89. It emits, when rubbed, an un¬ 
pleasant smell, and has a disagreeable taste. It is very malleable, 
has considerable ductility, and tenacity superior to all metals 
except iron ; it fuses at a slow, white heat. It burns with a red 
flame edged with green, when fused and acted upon by oxygen; 
when in thin leaves, it inflames spontaneously in chlorine. 

Mercury is of a brilliant white colour. Its specific gravity is 
1356. At the common temperature of the air it is fluid, 


567 


MINERALOGY. 

becomes solid at 39° below 0° of Fahrenheit, and boils at about 
660°. Mercury is found native in the mines of Idria, Spain, and 
Peru ; and also combined with chlorine and muriatic acid, in which 
states it forms muriate of mercury (corrosive sublimate) and sub- 
muriate of mercury, known under the name of calomel. Mercury 
is a very important and useful metal. It is employed in extracting 
gold and silver from their ores ; and in the state of amalgam with 
tin for covering mirrors. 

Silver is of a brilliant white colour, with great lustre, and 
without taste or smell. It is softer than copper; its specific 
gravity is about 10*40, which is slightly increased by hammering. 
It exceeds all the metals except gold in malleability. Silver is very 
ductile, and may be easily drawn into extremely fine wire. Its 
tenacity is considerable. A wire of 0*078 of an inch in diameter 
will support 187*131bs weight. 

Gold is of a fine light yellow colour ; its hardness little superior 
to that of tin. Its specific gravity is about 19*277, which is 
increased by hammering. In malleability and ductility it exceeds 
all metals. It has a considerable degree of tenacity; a wire of 
0*078 inch in diameter will support a weight of 1501bs. It fuses 
at about 1300°. Gold forms alloys with the other metals; some 
of these are brittle, as with bismuth, antimony, and lead ; others 
are malleable, as with silver, copper, and platinum. The alloy ot 
gold and copper is employed in coin. 


568 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION 




CHAPTER XV. 

THE BELLES LETT RES 


T-His term, in its most comprehensive meaning, may be con¬ 
sidered as synonymous with polite literature. In this sense the 
belles lettres properly comprehend those subjects that relate to 
man as a being endowed with taste and imagination, which 
were intended to embellish his mind, and to supply him with 
rational and useful entertainment. They include the origin, 
structure, and various kinds of language, or grammar; universal 
and particular criticism; rhetoric in its whole extent of composition, 
style, and elocution ; history in its several departments, ancient 
and modern, general and special; and all the different kinds of 
poetry. Their province comprehends every thing that relates to 
beauty, harmony, grandeur, and elegance ; every thing that can 
soothe the mind, gratify the fancy, or move the affections. They 
present human nature under a different aspect from that which 
it assumes, when viewed by other sciences. They bring to li<dit 
various springs of action, which, without their aid, might have 
passed unobserved; and which, though of a delicate nature, fre¬ 
quently exert a powerful influence on several departments of 
human life. Such studies have also this peculiar advantage, that 
they exercise our reason without fatiguing it. They lead to in¬ 
quiries acute, but not painful ; profound, but not dry or abstruse. 
They strew flowers in the path of science, and while they keep* 
the mind bent, in some degree, and active, they relieve it at the 
same time from that more toilsome labour to which it must submit 
in the acquisition of necessary erudition, or the investigation of 
abstract truth. Besides, the study of polite literature furnishes an 
agreeable amusement for those intervals of leisure which occur in 
every man’s life ; and thus prevents his being a burden to himself, 
or recurring to the indulgence of pernicious passions, and the 
pursuit of licentious pleasures. The satisfaction which this studv 
imparts occupies a kind of middle station between those of mere 
sense and those of pure intellect; they refresh the mind after the 
toils of intellect, and the labour of abstract study; and they 




THE BELLES LETTIlES. 


569 


gradually raise it above the attachments of sense, and prepare it for 
the enjoyments of virtue. Of those whose minds in early life 
incline to polite literature, good hopes may be entertained, as this 
liberal and elegant turn is favourable to many virtues ; whereas, 
to be entirely void of relish for eloquence, poetry, or any of the 
fine arts, is an unpromising symptom of youth, and furnishes sus¬ 
picions of their being prone to low gratifications, or destined to 
drudge in the more vulgar and illiberal pursuits of life. A cul¬ 
tivated taste increases sensibility to all the tender and humane 
passions, by giving them frequent exercise, while it tends to 
weaken the more violent and fierce emotions. 

The elevated sentiments and high examples which poetry, elo¬ 
quence, and history, are often bringing under our view, naturally 
tend to nourish in our minds public spirit, the love of glory, con¬ 
tempt of external fortune, and the admiration of what is truly 
illustrious and great. Although it should not be said that the 
improvement of taste and virtue are the same, or that they may be 
always expected to co-exist in an equal degree; yet it must be 
allowed, that the exercise of taste is, in its native tendency, 
moral and purifying. From reading the most admirable produc¬ 
tions of genius, in poetry or in prose, almost every one rises with 
some good impressions on his mind; and though these may not 
always be durable, they are at least to be ranked among the means 
of disposing the heart to virtue. Indeed, without possessing the 
virtuous affections in a strong degree, no man can attain eminence 
in the sublime parts of eloquence. He must feel what a good 
man feels, if he expects greatly to move or to interest mankind. 
They are the ardent sentiments of honour, virtue, magnanimity, 
and public spirit, that only can kindle that fire of genius, and call 
up into the mind those high ideas, which attract the admiration of 
ages ; and if this spirit be necessary to produce the most distin¬ 
guished efforts of eloquence, it must be necessary also to our 
relishing them with proper taste and feeling. 

Many of the subjects included in the belles lettres have already 
passed in review before us in the former part of this work, as 
Grammar, including Language, History, &c., each of which were of 
sufficient importance to form a separate chapter. We shall now 
proceed to a few remarks on Rhetoric, including Style, Composi¬ 
tion, &c.; Epistolary Correspondence, and Poetry. 

Section I. —Rhetoric. 

In its primary sense, this term implies the art of speaking co¬ 
piously on any subject, in.such a manner as shall combine the 

4 D 


570 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


advantages of beauty and force. It is the object of rhetoric,to 
attempt to produce conviction concerning some particular object, 
that it may influence the will to a corresponding determination. 

In order to persuade, the most essential requisites are, solid 
arguments, clear method, a character of probity appearing in the 
speaker, joined with such graces of style and utterance as shall 
draw our attention to what he says. Good sense is the foundation 
of all. No man can be truly eloquent without it, for fools can 
persuade none but fools. In order to persuade a man of sense, 
you must first convince him ; which is only to be done by satis¬ 
fying his understanding of the reasonableness of what you propose 
to him. But in order to persuade, the orator must go farther 
than merely producing conviction; he must consider man as a 
creature moved by many different springs, and must act upon 
them all. He must address himself to the passions; he must 
paint to the fancy, and touch the heart; and hence, besides solid 
argument and clear method, all the conciliating and interesting 
arts, both of composition and pronunciation, enter into the idea 
of eloquence. 

We may distinguish three kinds, or degrees, of eloquence. The 
first and lowest is that which aims only at pleasing the hearers. 
Such generally is the elegance of panegyrics, inaugural orations, 
addresses to great men, and other harangues of this sort. A second 
and a higher degree of eloquence is, when the speaker aims not 
merely to please, but also to inform, to instruct, to convince; 
when his art is exerted in removing prejudices against himself and 
his cause ; in choosing the most proper arguments ; stating them 
with the greatest force; arranging them in the best order; expressing 
and delivering them with propriety and beauty. But there is a 
third, and still higher degree of eloquence, wherein a greater power 
is exerted over the human mind ; by which we are not only con¬ 
vinced, but are interested, agitated, and carried along with the 
speaker; our passions are made to rise together with his; we 
enter into all his emotions; we love, we detest, we resent, ac¬ 
cording as he inspires us ; and are prompted to resolve, or to act 
with vigour and warmth. Debate in popular assemblies opens 
the most illustrious field to this species of eloquence; and the 
pulpit also admits it in a considerable degree. 

The parts which compose a discourse have been variously stated 
by different writers on rhetoric. According to Dr. Blair these 
are, first, the Exordium, or Introduction ; secondly, the State¬ 
ment, and the Division of the Subject; thirdly, Narration and 
Explanation; fourthly, the Reasoning, or Arguments; fifthly, the 
Pathetic part; and lastly, the Conclusion. It does not follow 


TUE WELLES LETTRES. 


571 


that eacli of these must enter into every public discourse, or that 
they must be always introduced in this order. There may be 
many excellent discourses in public, where several of these parts 
are altogether wanting. But as these are the natural constituent 
parts of a regular oration, and as in every discourse whatever some 
ol them must be found, it is necessary to our present purpose to 
treat of each of them distinctly. 

1. The Exordium , or Introduction , is manifestly necessary to 
prepare the minds of the hearers for a suitable reception of the 
discourse. It is not a rhetorical invention, but is founded upon 
nature and suggested by common sense. When one is going to 
counsel another; when he takes upon him to instruct, or to re¬ 
prove ; prudence will generally direct him not to do it abruptly, 
but to use some preparation; to begin with somewhat that may 
incline the persons to whom he addresses himself to judge favour¬ 
ably of what he is about to say; and may dispose them to such 
a train of thought as will forward and assist the purpose which 
he has in view. This is, or ought to be, the main scope of an 
introduction. 

2. The Proposition and Division. In every just and regular dis¬ 
course, the speaker's intention is to prove or illustrate something; 
and when he lays down the subject upon which he designs to treat 
in a distinct and express manner, this is called the proposition. 
Sometimes, to give a clearer and more distinct view of the discourse, 
he subjoins to the proposition the general heads of argument by 
which he endeavours to support it. 

It is sometimes convenient to divide these again, or at least 
some of them, into several parts or members; and when this 
happens, it is best done as the speaker comes to each of them in 
the order at first laid down; by which means the memory of the 
hearers will be less burdened, than by a multitude of particulars at 
one and the same time. This subdividing, however, should never 
be admitted but when absolutely necessary. 

3. Narration and Explanation form the next constituent part 
of a discourse. These two are put together, both because they 
fall nearly under the same rules, and because they commonly 
answer the same purpose; serving to illustrate the cause or the 
subject of which the orator treats, before he proceeds to argue 
either on one side or other, or make any attempt for interesting 
the passions of the hearers. 

In pleadings at the bar, narration is often a very important part 
of a discourse, and requires to be particularly attended to. Besides 
its being, in any case, no easy matter to relate with grace and pro¬ 
priety, there is in narrations at the bar a peculiar difficulty. The 


57# YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 

pleader must say nothing but what is true ; and at the same time he 
must avoid saying any thing that will hurt his cause. The facts 
which he relates are to be the groundwork of all his future reasoning. 
To recount them so as to keep strictly within the bounds of truth, 
and yet to present them under the colours most favourable to his 
cause; to place in the most striking light every circumstance 
which is to his advantage, and to soften and weaken such as make 
against him ; demand no small exertion of skill and dexterity. 

In sermons, where there is seldom any occasion for narration, 
explication of the subject to be discoursed on comes in the place 
of narration at the bar, and is to be taken up much on the same 
tone ; that is, it must he concise, clear, and distinct, and in a style 
correct and elegant rather than highly adorned. The great art in 
succeeding in it is, to meditate profoundly on the subject, so as to 
be able to place it in a clear and strong point of view. Consider 
what light other passages of Scripture throw upon it; consider 
whether it be a subject nearly related to some other from whicli it 
is proper to distinguish it; consider whether it can be illustrated 
to advantage by comparing it with, or opposing it to, some other 
thing; by inquiring into causes, or tracing effects ; by pointing 
out examples, or appealing to the feelings of the hearers; that 
thus, a definite, precise, circumstantial view may be afforded of 
the doctrine to be inculcated. 

4. The Argument. In the argumentative part of a discourse 
two different methods may be used by orators, the terms of art for 
which are, the analytic and the synthetic. 

The analytic method is, when the orator conceals his intention 
concerning the point he is to prove, till he has gradually brought 
his hearers to the designed conclusion. They are led on, step by 
step, from one known truth to another, till the conclusion steals 
upon them, as the natural consequence of a chain of propositions. 
As, for instance, when one intending to prove the being of a God, 
sets out with observing that everything which we see in the world 
has had a beginning; that whatever has had a beginning, must 
have had a prior cause; that in human productions, art shown in 
the effect, necessarily infers design in the cause; and proceeds 
leading you on from one cause to another, till you arrive at one 
supreme First Cause, from whom is derived all the order and design 
visible in his works. 

But there are few subjects that will admit of the analytic.me¬ 
thod, and not many occasions on which it is proper to be employed. 
The mode of reasoning more generally used, and most suited to 
the train of popular speaking, is what is called the synthetic; 
when the point to be proved is fairly laid, and one argument 


578 


TIIE BELLES LETTIIEH. 

after another is made to bear upon it, till the hearers be fully 
convinced. Now, in all arguing, one of the first things to be 
attended to is, among the various arguments which may occur upon 
a cause, to make a proper selection of such as appear to one’s self 
the most solid, and to employ these as the chief means of per¬ 
suasion. Every speaker should place himself in the situation of 
a hearer, and think how he would be affected by those reasons 
which he purpose's to employ for persuading others. 

Supposing the arguments properly chosen, it is evident that 
their effect will, in some measure, depend on the right arrangement 
of them, so as they shall not jostle and embarrass one another, 
but give mutual aid, and bear with the fairest and fullest direction 
on the point of view. Concerning this, the following rules may 
betaken:—1. Avoid blending arguments confusedly together 
that are of a separate nature. All arguments whatever are di¬ 
rected to prove one or other of these three things :—that something 
is true, that it is morally right or fit, or that it is profitable and 
good. These make the three great subjects of discussion among 
mankind—truth, duty, and interest. But the arguments directed 
towards any one of them are generally distinct; and he who blends 
them all under one topic, which lie calls his argument, as, in 
sermons especially, is too often done, will render his reasoning in¬ 
distinct and inelegant. 2. With regard to the different degrees 
of strength in arguments, the general rule is, to advance in the 
way of climax. This especially is to be the course when the 
speaker has a clear cause, and is confident that he can prove it 
fully. He may then adventure to begin with feebler arguments, 
rising gradually, and not putting forth his whole strength till the 
last, when he can trust to his making a successful impression on 
the minds of his hearers, prepared by what has gone before. But 
this rule is not to be always followed; for if he distrusts his 
cause, and has but one material argument on which to lay the 
stress, putting less confidence in the rest, in this case it is often 
proper for him to place this material argument in the front, to 
pre-occupy the hearers early, and make the strongest effort at 
first. 3. When our arguments are strong and satisfactory, the 
more they are distinguished and treated apart from each other the 
better. Each can then be brought out by itself, placed in its full 
light, amplified and rested upon. But when our arguments are 
doubted, and only of the presumptive kind, it is safer to throw them 
together in a crowd, and to run them into one another, that, though 
infirm of themselves, they may serve mutually to prop each other. 

5. The Pathetic Part. In treating of this part of eloquence, 
the ancients made the same sort of attempt as they employed with 


574 


\ DUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


respect to the argumentative part, in order to bring rhetoric into 
a more perfect system. They inquired metaphysically into the 
nature of every passion ; they gave a definition and description of 
it; they treated of its causes, its effects, and its concomitants; 
and thence deduced rules for working upon it. 

On the head of the pathetic, Dr. Blair gives the following 
directions:—1. To consider carefully whether the subject admit 
the pathetic and render it proper; and if it does, what part of the 
discourse is the most proper for attempting it. 2. Never to set 
apart a head of a discourse in form for raising any passion ; never 
give warning that you are about to be pathetic, and call upon 
your hearers, as is sometimes done, to follow you in the attempt. 
This scarcely ever fails to prove a refrigerant to passion. 3. It is 
necessary to observe that there is a great difference between 
showing the hearers that they ought to be moved, and actually 
moving them. 4. The only effectual method is to be moved 
yourselves. There are a thousand interesting circumstances sug¬ 
gested by real passion, which no art can imitate, and no refinement 
can supply. The internal emotion of the speaker adds a pathos to 
his w r ords, his looks, his gestures, and his whole manner, which 
exerts a power almost irresistible over those who hear him. 5. It 
is necessary to attend to the proper language of the passions. We 
should observe in what manner any one expresses himself who is 
under the power of a real and a strong passion ; and we shall al¬ 
ways find his language unaffected and simple. 6. Avoid inter¬ 
weaving any thing of a foreign nature with the pathetic part of a 
discourse. Lastly, Never attempt prolonging the pathetic too 
much. Warm emotions are too violent to be lasting. Study the 
proper time of making a retreat, of making a transition from the 
passionate to the calm tone. 

6. The Peroration , or Conclusion. It is obvious that this 
must vary so considerably that no rules can be given which will 
apply universally. Sometimes it may be preceded by a summary or 
recapitulation of what the speaker had before offered on his subject; 
but this can rarely be done with good effect, and when introduced, 
should be very concise, and should preserve, as far as possible, 
the exact order of the discourse. Sometimes the whole pathetic 
part comes in most properly at the peroration. In sermons, in¬ 
ferences from what has been said, make a common conclusion. In 
all discourses ft is a matter of importance to hit the precise time of 
concluding, so as to bring our discourse just to a point; neither 
ending abruptly and unexpectedly, nor disappointing the expec¬ 
tation of the hearers when they look for a close, and continuing to 
hover round and round the conclusion, till they become heartily 


THE BELLES LETTRES. 


575 


tired of us. We should endeavour to go off with a good grace ; 
not to end with a languishing and dwindling sentence; but to 
close with dignity and spirit; that we may have the minds of the 
hearers warm, and dismiss them with a favourable impression of 
the subject and of the speaker. 


STYLE AND LANGUAGE. 

The rise and progress of oral and written language has been 
alluded to in Chapters II. and III.; we shall only, therefore, 
remark in general, that we live at a period when this artificial 
method of communicating thought is carried to the highest per¬ 
fection. Language is become a vehicle by which the most delicate 
and refined emotions of one mind can be transmitted, or, if we 
may so speak, transfused into another. 

It is not easy to give a precise idea of what is meant by style. 
In general it is the peculiar manner in which a man expresses his 
conceptions by means of language. It is different from mere 
language or words. The words which an author employs may be 
proper and faultless, and his style may, nevertheless, have great 
faults: it may be dry, stiff, feeble, or affected. Style has always 
some reference to an author's manner of thinking. It is a picture 
of the ideas which rise in his mind, and of the manner in which 
they rise there; and hence, when we are examining an author’s 
composition, it is in many cases extremely difficult to separate the 
style from the sentiment. No wonder these two should be so 
intimately connected, as style is nothing else than that sort of ex¬ 
pression which our thoughts most readily assume. 

As it is impossible here to separate the two leading qualities of 
style, perspicuity and ornament, we shall treat of them together, 
in order to bring under one view, all that seems necessary to be 
attended to in the construction and arrangement of words in a 
sentence. The properties most essential to a perfect sentence are 
the four following :— 

1. Clearness and Precision. 2. Unity. 3. Strength. 4. Har¬ 
mony. 

Clearness and Precision. The least failure here, the least degree 
of ambiguity, which leaves the mind in any sort of suspense as to 
the meaning, ought to be avoided with the greatest care ; nor is it 
so easy a matter to keep always clear of this, as one might at first 
imagine. Ambiguity arises from two causes :—either from a wrong 
choice of words, or a wrong collocation of them.. In the collo¬ 
cation of words the first thing to be studied, is to observe exactly 


570 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


the rules of grammar, as far as these can guide us. But as the 
grammar of our language is not extensive, there may often be an 
ambiguous collocation of words, where there is no transgression of 
any grammatical rule. The relation which the words or members 
of a period bear to one another, cannot be pointed out in English, 
as in the Greek or Latin, by means of termination ; it is ascertained 
only by the position in which they stand. Hence a capital rule 
in the arrangement of sentences is, that the words or members 
most nearly related should be placed in the sentence as near to 
each other as possible, so as to make their mutual relation clearly 
appear. 

Unity. The second quality of a well-arranged sentence is termed 
its unity. This is a capital property. In every composition, of 
whatever kind, some degree of unity is required in order to render 
it beautiful. There must be always some connecting principle 
among the parts. Some one object must reign and be predominant. 
This holds in history, in epic and dramatic poetry, as well as in 
rhetoric. But most of all, in a single sentence is required the 
strictest unity; for the very nature of a sentence implies one 
proposition to be expressed. It may consist of parts, indeed, 
but these parts must be so closely bound together, as to make the 
impression upon the mind of one object, not many. 

Strength. The third quality of a correct sentence is termed 
strength. By this is meant such a disposition of the several vowels 
and members as shall bring out the sense to the best advantage, as 
shall render the impression which the period is designed to make 
most full and complete, and give every word and every member 
their due weight and force. The two former qualities of perspicuity 
and unity, are, no doubt, absolutely necessary to the production of 
this effect; but more is still requisite ; for a sentence may be clear 
enough, it may also be compact enough in all its parts, or have the 
requisite unity; and yet, by some unfavourable circumstance in 
the structure, it may fail in that strength or liveliness of impression 
which a more happy arrangement would have produced. 

Harmony . We are now to consider words with respect to their 
sound, their harmony or agreeableness to the ear. Sound is a 
quality much inferior to sense, yet such as must not be disregarded ; 
for as long as sounds are the vehicle of conveyance for our ideas, 
there will be always a very considerable connexion between the 
idea which is conveyed, and the nature of the sound which con¬ 
veys it. In the harmony of periods, two things may be considered. 
First, agreeable sound, or modulation in general, without any par¬ 
ticular expression. Next, the sound so ordered as to become ex¬ 
pressive of the sense. The first is the more common ; the 


THE BELLES LETTRES. 


5^7 

second the higher beauty. This beauty of musical construction 
in prose, it is plain, will depend upon two things—the choice of 
words, and the arrangement of them. 

It is evident that words are most agreeable to the ear which are 
composed of smooth and liquid sounds, where there is a proper 
intermixture of vowels and consonants ; without too many harsh 
consonants rubbing against each other, or too many open vowels 
in succession, to cause a hiatus or disagreeable aperture of the 
mouth. It may always be assumed as a principle, that, whatever 
sounds are difficult in pronunciation, are, in the same proportion, 
harsh and painful to the ear. Vowels give softness, consonants 
strength to the sounds of words. The music of language requires 
a just proportion of both, and will be hurt, will be rendered either 
grating or effeminate, by an excess of either. Long words are 
commonly more agreeable to the ear than monosyllables. The 
harmony which results from a proper arrangement of the words and 
members of a period is more complex, and of greater nicety. For 
let the words themselves be ever so well-chosen, and well sounding, 
yet, if they be ill disposed, the music of the sentence is utterly 
lost. 

Hitherto we have discoursed of agreeable sound or modulation 

O 

in general: it yet remains to treat of a higher beauty of this kind— 
the sound adapted to the sense. The former was no more than a 
simple accompaniment to please the ear; the latter supposes a 
peculiar expression given to the music. We may remark two de¬ 
grees of it; first, the current of sound adapted to the tenor of a 
discourse ; next, a particular resemblance effected between some 
object and the sounds that are employed in describing it. Sounds 
have, in many respects, a correspondence with our ideas, partly na¬ 
tural, partly the effect of artificial association. Hence it happens, 
that any one modulation of sound continued, imprints on our style 
a certain character and expression. Sentences constructed with the 
Ciceronian fulness and swell, produce the impression of what is im¬ 
portant, magnificent, sedate ; for this is the natural tone which 
such a course of sentiment assumes. But they suit no violent 
passion, no eager reasoning, no familiar address. These always 
require measures brisker, easier, and often more abrupt. And 
therefore, to swell, or to let down the periods as the subject de¬ 
mands, is a very important rule in oratory. No one tenor what¬ 
ever, supposing it to produce no bad effect from satiety, will answer 
to all different compositions ; nor even to all the parts of the same 
composition. It were as absurd to write a panegyric and an in¬ 
vective in a style of the same cadence, as to set the words of a 
tender love-song to the air of a warlike march. But in the next 

4 E 


578 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


place, besides the general correspondence of the current of sound 
with the current of thought, there may be a more particular ex¬ 
pression attempted of certain objects by means of resembling 
sounds. This can be sometimes accomplished in prose composition, 
but there only in a more faint degree; nor is it so much expected 
there. In poetry, chiefly, it is looked for, where attention to 
sound is more demanded, and where the inversions and liberties of 
poetical style give us a greater command of sound ; assisted too 
by the versification, and that cantus obscurior to which we are 
naturally led in reading poetry. 

The pronunciation or delivery of a discourse is a very im¬ 
portant branch of oratory. How much stress was laid upon this by 
the most eloquent of all orators, Demosthenes, appears from a noted 
saying of his, related both by Cicero and Quintilian ; when, being 
asked what was the first point in oratory, he answered, “ Delivery 
and being asked what was the second, and afterwards what was the 
third, he still answered, “ Delivery.” There is no wonder that he 
should have rated this so high, and that, for improving himself in 
it, he should have employed those assiduous and painful labours 
which all the ancients take so much notice of. 

The great objects which every public speaker will naturally have 
in his eye in forming his delivery are, first, to speak so as to be 
fully and easily understood by all who hear him ; and, next, to 
speak with grace and force, so as to please and move his audience. 
In order to be fully and easily understood, the four chief requisites 
are, a due degree of loudness of voice, distinctness, slowness, and 
propriety of pronunciation.—The first attention of every public 
speaker, doubtless, must be to make himself heard by all those 
to whom he speaks. He should endeavour, if he can, to fill the 
place where he speaks. But still he ought to be careful not to ex¬ 
ceed the natural key of his voice. If he does, it will neither be 
soft nor agreeable, but either harsh or rough. 

In the next place to being well heard and clearly understood, 
distinctness of articulation contributes more, perhaps, than mere 
loudness of sound. The quantity of sound necessary to fill even 
a large space is smaller than is commonly imagined ; and with 
distinct articulation, a man of a weak voice will make it reach 
farther than the strongest voice can reach without it. To this, 
therefore, every public speaker ought to pay great attention. 

The next property of the voice above mentioned was slowness. 
That some expressions ought to be pronounced faster than others 
is very manifest. Gay and sprightly ideas should not only be ex¬ 
pressed louder, but also faster, than such as are sad and melancholy. 
And when we press an adversary, the voice should be brisk and 


THE BELLES LETT RES. 


nmick. But to hurry on in a precipitant manner, without pausing 
till stopped for want of breath, is certainly a very great fault. 

The fourth requisite in a public speaker is propriety of pro¬ 
nunciation, or the giving to every word which he utters that 
sound which t\\6 most polite usage of the language appropriates to 
it, in opposition to broad, vulgar, or provincial pronunciation. 
This is requisite, both for speaking intelligibly, and for speaking 
with grace or beauty. Instructions concerning this article can be 
given by the living voice only. 

The higher parts of delivery may be comprised under the heads 
of emphasis, pauses, and tones. 

Bv Emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by 
which we distinguish the accented syllable of some word, on which 
we design to lay particular stress, and to show how it affects the 
rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic word must be dis¬ 
tinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a stronger 
accent. On the right management of the emphasis depend tin 
whole life and spirit of every discourse. If no emphasis be placet! 
on any words, not only is discourse rendered heavy and lifeless, but 
the meaning left often ambiguous. If the emphasis be placed 
wrong, we pervert and confound the meaning wholly. To give a 
common instance; such a simple question as this, u Do you ride 
to town to-day ?” is capable of no fewer than four different accep¬ 
tations, according as the emphasis is differently placed on the words. 
If it be pronounced thus : Do you ride to town to-day ? the 
answer may naturally be. No ; I send my servant in my stead. If 
thus : Do you 7'ide to town to-day ? Answer, No ; I intend to 
walk. Do you ride to town to-day ? No ; I ride into the fields. 
Do you ride to town to-day f No; but I shall to-morrow. 

Next to emphasis, the Pauses in speaking demand attention. 
These are of two kinds ; first, emphatical pauses; and next, such 
as mark the distinctness of sense. An emphatical pause is made 
after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which 
we want to fix the hearer’s attention. Sometimes before such a 
thing is said, we usher it in with a pause of this nature. Such 
pauses have the same effect as a strong emphasis ; and are subject to 
the same rules ; especially to the caution just now given, of not 
repeating them too frequently. 

Tones in pronunciation are different both from emphasis and 
pauses; consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or 
variations of sound which we employ in public speaking. How 
much of the propriety, the force, and grace of discourse, must de¬ 
pend on these, will appear from this single consideration, that to 
almost every sentiment we utter, more especially to every strong 


580 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


emotion, nature has adapted some peculiar tone of voice; inso¬ 
much, that he who should tell another that he was very angry, or 
much grieved, in a tone which did not suit such emotions, instead 
of being believed, would be laughed at. Sympathy is one of the 
most powerful principles by which persuasive discourse works its 
effect. The speaker endeavours to transfuse into his hearers his 
own sentiments and emotions; which he can never be successful 
in doing, unless he utters them in such a manner as to convince 
his hearers that he feels them. The proper expression of tones, 
therefore, deserves to be attentively studied by every one who 
would be a successful orator. 

Gesture. By gesture is meant a suitable conformity of the 
motions of the countenance, and several parts of the body, in 
speaking, to the subject matter of the discourse. The fundamental 
rule as to propriety of action is undoubtedly the same which is 
already given as to propriety of tone. Attend to the looks and 
gestures in which earnestness, indignation, compassion, or any 
other emotion discovers itself to most advantage in the common 
intercourse of men, and let these be your model. Some of these 
looks and gestures are common to all men; and there are also 
certain peculiarities of manner which distinguish every individual. 
A public speaker must take that manner which is most natural to 
himself. For it is here just as in tones : it is not the business of 
a speaker to form to himself a certain set of motions and gestures, 
which he thinks most becoming and agreeable, and to practise 
these in public, without their having any correspondence to the 
manner which is natural to him in private. His gestures and 
motions ought all to carry that kind of expression which nature 
has dictated to him; and, unless this be the case, it is impossible, 
by means of any study, to avoid their appearing stiff and forced. 

To conclude; above all things guard against all affectation, 
which is the certain ruin of good delivery. Let your manner, 
whatever it is, be your own; neither imitated from another, nor 
assumed upon some imaginary model, which is unnatural to you. 
Whatever is native, even though accompanied with several defects, 
yet is likely to please; because it shows us a man ; because it has 
the appearance of coming from the heart: whereas a delivery, 
attended with several acquired graces and beauties, if it be not 
easy and free, if it betray the marks of art and affectation, never 
fails to disgust. 


THE BELLES LETTRES. 


581 


Section II.— Epistolary Correspondence. 

Many of the observations in the preceding section in relation 
to style and language will apply with equal propriety to epistolary 
correspondence; there are nevertheless some points of differ¬ 
ence in which a peculiarity of management is needful. 

Had letters been known at the beginning of the world, it is 
probable that epistolary writing would have been as old as love 
and friendship; for as soon as they began to be employed in the 
communication with an absent friend, the verbal messenger was 
dropped, the language of the heart was committed to characters 
that faithfully preserved it, secrecy was maintained, and social in¬ 
tercourse rendered more free and agreeable. The art of epistolary 
writing was esteemed by the Romans among the number of liberal 
and polite accomplishments ; and Cicero, in some of his letters, 
mentions with great pleasure the elegant specimens of epistolary 
composition which he had received from his son. It seems indeed 
to have formed part of the education of the Romans; and it de¬ 
serves to have a share in ours. “ It has,” says Mr. Locke, “ so 
much to do in all the occurrences of life, that no gentleman can 
avoid showing himself in this kind of writing. Occasions will 
daily force him to make this use of his pen ; which, besides the 
consequences that, in his affairs, his well or ill managing of it 
often draws after it, always lays him open to a severer examination 
of his breeding, his sense, and his abilities, than oral discourses, 
whose transient faults, dying for the most part with the sound that 
gives them life, and so not subject to a strict review, more easily 
escape observation and censure.” 

The first and fundamental requisite in epistolary writing is to 
be natural and simple, for a stiff and laboured manner is as im¬ 
proper in a letter as in conversation. This does not banish 
sprightliness and wit. These are graceful in letters as well as in 
conversation; when they flow easily, and without being studied ; 
when employed so as to season, and not to encumber the style. 
A person, who either in conversation or in letters affects to shine 
and sparkle always, will not please long. The style of letters 
should be neat and correct, but not too highly polished. Nicety 
about words betrays study ; and on this account musical periods, 
and appearances of number and harmony in arrangement, should 
be carefully avoided in letters. Those that are written with the 
oreatest facility are commonly the best. Nevertheless, it should be 
remembered that the ease and simplicity of epistolary writing are 
not to be understood as importing entire carelessness. In writing 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


58$ 

to the most intimate friend, a certain degree of attention, both to 
the subject and the style, is requisite and becoming. The first 
requisite, both in conversation and correspondence, is to regard all 
the proper decorums which our own character and that of others 
demand. 

The epistles of Cicero are perhaps the most valuable collection 
of letters in any language, as they are letters of real business, 
written to the greatest men of the age, composed with purity and 
elegance, but without the least affectation, and, what adds greatly 
to their merit, written without any intention of being published 
to the world. Pliny's letters are elegant and polite, and exhibit 
a very pleasing and amiable view of the author; but, according to 
the vulgar phrase, they savour too much of the lamp. They are 
too elegant and fine; the author seems to be casting his eye to¬ 
wards the public, when he is appearing to write only to his friends. 
His style abounds so much with turns and quibbles upon the 
sound of words, as to render it more stiff and affected than agrees 
with conversation, or than a man of sense would choose to use in 
discourse, if it were in his power. This indeed was owing to the 
age in which he lived, at which time the Roman eloquence was 
sunk into puns, and an affectation of wit; for Pliny was other* 
wise a man of fine sense and great learning. 

The most distinguished collection of letters in the English 
language is that of Mr. Pope, Dean Swift, and their friends; 
published partly in Mr. Pope’s works, and partly in those of 
Dean Swift. Many letters in this collection are written with ease 
and a beautiful simplicity. Those of Dr. Arbuthnot deserve 
this commendation. Dean Swift’s are unaffected. Several of 
Lord Bolingbroke’s and of bishop Atterbury’s letters are masterly. 
Mr. Pope’s are too artificial. Among the French in the last age, 
Balzac and Voiture were the two most celebrated epistolary writers. 
Balzac’s periods are swelling, and his style pompous ; so that his 
reputation soon declined. Voiture continued for a long time a 
favourite author. His composition is extremely sparkling; he 
manifests much wit, and trifles agreeably. His only fault is, that 
he is too open and professed a wit to be thoroughly agreeable as a 
letter writer. The letters of Madame de Sevigne are esteemed 
the most accomplished model of a familiar correspondence. 
Trifling as are their subjects, and overloaded as they are with 
compliments, they show such perpetual sprightliness, they contain 
such easy and varied narration, and so many strokes of the most 
lively and beautiful painting, perfectly free from any affectation, 
that they are justly entitled to high praise. The letters of lady 
Mary Wortiey Montague possess much of the French ease and 


THE BELLES LETTRES. 


58S 


vivacity, and retain the character of an agreeable epistolary style 
in an equal degree. In more modern times there are scarcely any 
letters which combine more varied qualities of good sense, wit, 
and playfulness, than those of the poet Cowper, introduced in his 
life by Hayley. 

Letter writing is a subject of so varied and extensive a nature, 
that it can scarcely be reduced to rules of universal application 
But some instruction respecting it may doubtless be communicated 
to young persons ; and the following, together with the obser¬ 
vations that accompany them, have been recommended for that 
purpose. 

I. When you write a letter to any person, express the same sen¬ 
timents, and use the same language as you would do if you were 
conversing with him. “Write eloquently,” says Mr. Gray, 
“ that is, from your heart, in such expressions as that will furnish.” 
This rule is of primary importance for the attainment of ease and 
simplicity in epistolary composition ; but it will not, with equal 
efficacy, promote correctness and propriety, unless we accustom 
ourselves to think, and to express our thoughts accurately and 
properly, in common conversation. 

II. Before you begin a letter, especially when it is on any oc¬ 
casion of importance, weigh well in your own mind the design and 
purport of it; and consider, very attentively, what sentiments are 
most proper for you to express, and your correspondent to read. 
The observance of this rule is highly useful. To those who have 
few thoughts, it affords an opportunity of adding to the stock ; 
and to those who are overwhelmed by the abundance, or per¬ 
plexed by the variety of them, it gives ample scope for selection. 

III. Let all your sentiments and expressions be consistent with 
truth and virtue. Avoid exaggerated and extravagant professions 
of regard ; suppress every unjust or malignant thought; encourage 
pious and benevolent affections in your own mind, and in the 
minds of those whom you address. This rule, which is important 
in conversation, is much more so in letters, because writing allows 
an opportunity for consideration, which renders error of every kind 
more inexcusable. “ Let me conjure you,” says bishop Atterbury, 
in a letter to his son, “ never to say anything, either in a letter or 
in common conversation, that you do not think; but always let 
your mind and your words go together, even on the most slight 
and trivial occasions.” 

IV. Vary your style, and adapt it to the subject of your 
letter, and also to the character, the situation, and other peculiar 
circumstances of the person to whom you write. As the occasion 
oil which letters are written, and the situation, feelings, and 


584 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


acquirements of those who write them, as well as of those to whom 
they are written, are so various, a great diversity of style necessarily 
becomes requisite. On important subjects, it should be strong 
and solemn ; on lighter subjects, easy and simple ; in exhortation, 
earnest; in persuasion, mild; in consolation, tender; in con¬ 
gratulation, lively; in requests, modest; in commendation, warm ; 
to superiors, respectful; to inferiors, courteous; to friends and 
companions, familiar. 

V. Scrupulously adhere to the rules of grammar. Select and 
apply all your words with a strict regard to their proper significa¬ 
tion ; and whenever you have any doubt respecting the correct¬ 
ness or propriety of them, consult a dictionary, or some good 
living authority. Avoid with particular care all errors in orthogra¬ 
phy, in punctuation, and in the arrangement of words and phrases. 

VI. Endeavour, particularly in letters on business, to express 
your meaning as briefly as the nature of the subject will admit; 
and in such terms as are least likely to be misunderstood. Avoid un¬ 
necessary tautology, explanation,and longand frequent parentheses. 
Place the principal circumstances in the most prominent point 
of view; suppress, or slightly mention, those which are of a trivial 
nature. Make no quotations in foreign languages, nor any classical 
allusions, however apt or beautiful, except when you are writing to 
persons to whom they will be intelligible and pleasing. Before you 
seal your letter, always read it over very attentively ; and correct 
every inaccuracy or error which you discover in it, that might, in 
the slightest degree, perplex or mislead your correspondent. A 
plain, concise style is the best adapted for business. Letters of 
sentiment, of affection, and friendship, naturally admit of more 
enlargement. Long sentences should generally be avoided in 
epistolary composition. They may please the ear, but they 
usually occasion some degree of obscurity ; and they are burthen- 
some to the memory. Well constructed sentences that are short, 
or of a moderate length, strike the mind forcibly and agreeably ; 
and the tenour of them is easily remembered. 

VII. Let the exterior appearance of your letter, as well as its 
intrinsic qualities, be the object of your attention. Write a fair 
arid legible hand. Be sparing in the use of dashes, interlineations, 
and underlinings. Make no abbreviations in orthography, except 
those which are warranted by the general practice of the most correct 
writers. Always leave a vacancy for the seal or wafer, in order that, 
when your correspondent opens your letter, no part of the writing 
may be torn. Write your name at length, with particular dis¬ 
tinctness and uniformity, and in rather larger character than that 
in which your letter is written. Avoid postscripts, except when 


THE BELLES LETTUES. 


585 

they are necessary for the mentioning of some circumstance that 
occurred alter your letter was written. Fold, direct, and seal 
your letter neatly. Of the propriety of leaving a vacancy for the 
seal, the following circumstance, which is similar to what frequently 
occurs, affords a striking proof. “ I had a letter from a friend 
lately,” says Mr. Orton, in a letter to a young clergyman, u who 
desired me to transact some business for him, which was the chief 
purport of his letter; but he had unfortunately put the wafer on 
the most material part of the commission, so that I could not tell 
what he had desired me to do for him.” 

In regard to letters of business, the circumstances are too 
various and multiform to be anticipated so as to receive any material 
assistance from specimens of that style of composition. We 
can therefore only recommend an attention to the foregoing rules 
as far as they are applicable, and particularly to No. 6. Nor are 
the transactions of trade and commerce of a nature to admit of 
any great variety of expression, or the introduction of any of the 
qualities which constitute a good style of writing, except plainness 
and perspicuity. 


Section III.— Poetry. 

This term includes more than merely the art of versification, 
since it is possible to write verses in regular measure, which have 
no claim to the denomination of poetry, while, on the other hand, 
some of the most beautiful specimens of poetic composition are 
very deficient in regularity of measure, and others are written 
without even an attempt at measure at all. It appears, therefore, 
that many qualities must be combined in order to constitute true 
poetry. Bossu very justly includes in his idea of the art, cadences, 
peculiar constructions, and expressions unknown in common dis¬ 
course ; and, above all, a certain noble, bold, elevated and meta¬ 
phorical turn and manner of diction. These, he observes, are so 
essential to poetry, that without them the most exact arrangement 
of long and short syllables makes little more than a kind of mea¬ 
sured prose. The most just and comprehensive definition of 
poetry is, “ that it is the language of passion, or of enlivened 
imagination, formed most commonly into regular numbers.” 

Amidst the obscurity which envelopes the first ages of the world, 
reason and history still throw some light on the origin of this art. 
Reason suggests that, before the invention of letters, mankind had 
no method of transmitting to their descendants religious cere¬ 
monies, their laws, or the renowned actions of their sages and 
heroes, except by poetry ; which included all these subjects in a 

4 F 


586 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


kind of hymns which fathers sung to their children, thus impressing 
them deeply on their memories. The scriptures inform us, that 
Moses and Miriam, the first authors known to mankind, sung 
on the borders of the Red Sea a song of praise, to celebrate 
the deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage. This 
song has been transmitted to us, and forms an unrivalled specimen 
of poetical composition. See Exodus xv. 

The literary annals of all nations afford vestiges of poetry from 
the remotest ages. They are found among the most savage of the 
ancient barbarians, and among the most desolate of the Americans. 
Tacitus mentions the verses and hymns of the Germans at the time 
when that people inhabited the woods, and retained the most un¬ 
civilized manners. The first inhabitants of Russia and the other 
northern countries, those of Gaul, Albion, Iberia, and other nations 
of Europe, had their poetry, as well as the ancient people of Asia, 
and the known borders of Africa. But the simple productions 
of nature have uniformly something unformed, rough, and savage. 

It has been a prevalent opinion, sanctioned by the concurring 
voice of antiquity, that poetry is older than prose. This, however, 
can apply only to writings, since there never existed any period of 
society in which men conversed with each other in poetical numbers. 
But from the commencement of the social life, they occasionally 
met together for feasts, sacrifices, and public assemblies; and on 
such occasions their principal entertainment consisted in music, 
song and dance. In the rude effusions which the enthusiasm of 
fancy or passion suggested to untaught men, when roused by 
interesting events, and their meeting together in public assemblies, 
we discover the first beginningsof poetic composition. Two par¬ 
ticulars, says Dr. Blair, would early distinguish this language of 
song from that in which they conversed on the common occur¬ 
rences of life ; namely, an unusual arrangement of words, and the 
employment of bold figures of speech. 

Among the earliest poetic compositions we may also reckon 
odes and hymns, dictated by religious feelings ; plaintive or elegiac 
poetry, would as naturally arise from lamentations over deceased 
friends ; epic poetry derived its origin from the recital of the 
achievements of their heroes and ancestors ; and not contented 
with simply reciting these, they would be led, at some of their 
public meetings, to represent them, by introducing different bards 
speaking in the character of their heroes, and answering each other, 
in which practice we discern the first outlines of tragedy, or 
dramatic writing. But, in the first ages of society, none of these 
kinds of poetry were properly distinguished or separated, as they 
are now, from each other. At first, history, eloquence, and poetry 


THE BELI.ES LKTTRES. 


587 


were the same ; but when the progress of society induced a sepa¬ 
ration of the different arts and professions of civil life, it led also 
by degrees to a separation of the variety of literary productions. 
In process of time the art of writing was invented, and poetry 
became a separate art, calculated chiefly to please, and confined 
generally to such subjects as related to the imagination and passions. 
Even its earliest companion, music, was in a great measure 
divided from it. This separation produced consequences not 
altogether favourable to poetry, and in many respects injurious to 
music. As long as they remained united, music enlivened and 
animated poetry, and poetry gave force and expression to musical 
sound ; and the latter still preserves some remains of its first and 
original connexion with music. By being uttered in song it was 
formed into numbers, or into an artificial arrangement of words 
and syllables, very different in different countries; but such as to 
the inhabitants of each seemed most melodious and agreeable in 
sound. Hence arises that great characteristic of poetry which we 
now call verse. During the decline of the Roman empire, many 
causes concurred to accelerate the relapse of the Latin poetry 
into barbarism. Amidst these impediments, however, and the 
necessary degeneration of taste and style, a few poets supported 
the character of the Roman muse with tolerable dignity at this 
period. These were Ansonius, Paulinus, Sidonius, Sedulius, 
Arator, Juvencus, Prosper, and Fortunatus. With the last, who 
flourished at the beginning of the sixth century, and was bishop of 
Poitiers, the Roman poetry is supposed to have expired. 

The first age of English poetry, in the reign of Elizabeth, dis¬ 
played a fantastic combination of chivalrous fancy and feeling 
with classical pedantry; but, upon the whole, the native genius, 
was unsubdued; and the poems of that age, with all their faults, 
are the most national part of our poetry, as they undoubtedly 
contain its highest beauties. From the accession of James I. to 
the civil war, the glory of Shakspeare turned the whole national 
genius to the drama; and after the restoration, a new classical 
school arose. The period which extended from the English to 
the French revolution was the golden age of authentic history. 
In such an age, every art becomes rational. Reason is the power 
which presides in a calm ; but reason guides rather than impels ; 
and though it must regulate every exertion of genius, it never can 
rouse it to vigorous action. The school of Dryden and Pope, 
which prevailed till a very late period of the last century, is neither 
the most poetical nor the most national part of our literary annals. 
These great poets sometimes ventured into the regions of pure 
poetry. But their general character is, that they rather approached 


588 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


the elegant correctness of our continental neighbours, than sup¬ 
ported the daring flight which, in the former age, had borne English 
poetry to a sublimer elevation than that of any other modern 
people of the West. Towards the middle of the eighteenth 
century, great, though comparatively tranquil changes, began to 
manifest themselves in the republic of letters, in every European 
nation which retained any portion of mental activity. About that 
time, the exclusive authority of our great rhyming poets began to 
be weakened ; new tastes and fashions began to show themselves 
in the political world. 

A school of poetry must have prevailed long enough to be pro¬ 
bably on the verge of a downfal, before its practice be embodied 
in a correspondent system of criticism. Johnson was the critic of 
our second poetical school. As far as his prejudices of a political 
or religious kind did not disqualify him for all criticism, he was 
admirably fitted by nature to be the critic of this species of 
poetry. 

The interval which elapsed between the death of Goldsmith 
and the rise of Cowper is perhaps more barren than any other twelve 
years in the history of our poetry since the accession of Elizabeth. 
The established poetry had worn out either its own resources or 
the constancy of its readers. Former attempts to introduce novelty 
had been too weak or too early. Neither the beautiful fancy of 
Collins, nor the learned and ingenious industry of Warton, nor 
even the union of sublime genius with consummate art in Gray, 
had produced a general change in poetical composition. But the 
time was approaching when a revolution was to be accomplished, 
of which the commencement nearly coincides with that of the 
political revolution which had changed the character as well as the 
condition of Europe. 

It is dangerous to speak of living merit, although the present 
has been perhaps not unjustly denominated the golden age of 
English poetry. Scott, Byron, Campbell, Southey, Moore, Rogers, 
Crabbe, Montgomery, and many others, have recently enriched 
our libraries with the finest effusions of poetic genius. It were per¬ 
haps invidious to enter upon a discussion of the merits of these 
writers; all are endowed with the richest intellectual powers, while 
each is characterised by some peculiar excellence, and each un¬ 
rivalled in the department he has chosen. Yet if we might ex¬ 
press a wish, it should be, that the brilliant poetic genius of some 
of the writers to whom we have alluded were employed to raise 
the tone of morals, and make mankind better, and more happy; 
instead of being, as it undoubtedly is, more an object of admira¬ 
tion than of esteem. We feel pleasure, however, in the recol- 


T1IE PELLES LETTRES 


589 


lection, that, in the far greater number of our best modern poets, 
literature and genius are consecrated to the service of virtue and 
true religion. 

Much care is necessary in the delineation of poetical character. 
To conceive the idea of a good man, and to invent and support a 
good poetical character, are two very different things, though they 
have sometimes been confounded by critics. The first is easy to 
any person sufficiently instructed in the duties of life: the last is 
perhaps the most difficult of all the efforts of human genius ; so 
that, though attempted by many, Homer, Shakspeare, and Milton, 
are almost the only authors who have succeeded. Characters of 
perfect virtue, it is agreed, are not the most proper for poetry. It 
seems to be agreed, that the Deity should not be introduced in 
the machinery of a poetical fable. To ascribe to him words and 
actions of human invention seems unbecoming; nor can a 
poetical description, which must necessarily be infinitely in¬ 
adequate to the subject, ever satisfy the human mind. But 
poetical characters, though elevated, should still partake of the 
. passions and frailties of humanity. Without the vices of some 
principal personages, the Iliad would lose great part of its interest; 
and the most moving and most eventful parts of the iEneidare those 
that describe the effects of unlawful passions. Macbeth, perhaps the 
best tragedy ever written, is founded in crimes of dreadful enor¬ 
mity ; and if Milton had not taken into his plan the fall of our 
first parents, as well as their state of innocence, his poem must 
have wanted much of its pathos, and could not have been, as it 
is now esteemed, a treasure of important knowledge, which no 
other uninspired writer ever comprehended in so small a com¬ 
pass. 

Of the agents in Paradise Lost, it has been observed by Dr. 
Johnson, that “ the weakest are the highest and noblest of human 
beings, the original parents of mankind; with whose actions the 
elements consented; on whose rectitude or deviation of will de¬ 
pended the state of terrestrial nature, and the condition of all 
the future inhabitants of the globe. Of the other agents in the 
poem, the chief are such as it is irreverence to name on slight 
occasions ; the rest are lower powers, 

«-of which the least could wield 

These elements, and arm him with the force 
Of all their regions 

powers, which only the control of Omnipotence restrains from laying 
creation waste, and filling the vast expanse of space with ruin and 
confusion. To display the motives and actions of beings thus 



590 YOUNG MANS companion. 

superior, so far as human reason can examine, or human imagi¬ 
nation represent them, is the task which Milton undertook and 
performed. The characters in the Paradise Lost, which admit ot 
examination, are those of angels and of men; of angels good and 
evil; of man in his innocent and sinful state. Among the angels, 
the virtue of Raphael is mild and placid, of easy condescension, 
and free communication ; that of Michael is regal and loftv, 
attentive to the dignity of his own nature. Abdiel and Gabriel 
appear occasionally, and act as every incident requires: the solitar 
fidelity of Abdiel is very amiably painted. Of the evil angels, 
the characters are more diversified. To Satan such sentiments 
are given as suit the most exalted and most depraved thing. 
Milton has been censured for the impiety which sometimes breaks 
from Satan’s mouth ; for there are thoughts, it is justly remarked, 
which no observation of character can justify ; because no good 
man would willingly permit them to pass, however transiently, 
through his mind.” This censure has been proved to be ground¬ 
less by the great critic whom we have quoted. “ To make Satan 
speak as a rebel,” says he, “ without any such expressions as might 
taint the reader’s imagination, was indeed one of the greatest 
difficulties in Milton’s undertaking; and I cannot but think that 
he has extricated himself with great happiness. There is in 
Satan’s speeches little that can give pain to a pious ear. The 
language of rebellion cannot be the same with that of obedience; 
the malignity of Satan foams in haughtiness and obstinacy; but 
his expressions are commonly general, and no otherwise offensive 
than as they are wicked.” 

The other chiefs of the celestial rebellion are very judiciously 
discriminated ; and the furious character of Moloch appears, both 
in the battle and in the council, with exact consistence. To Adam 
and to Eve are given, during their innocence, such sentiments as 
innocence can generate and utter- Their love is pure benevolence 
and mutual veneration ; their repasts are without luxury, and their 
diligence without toil. Their addresses to their Maker have little 
more than the voice of admiration and gratitude: fruition left 
them nothing to ask, and innocence left them nothing to fear. 
But with guilt enter distrust and discord, mutual accusation and 
stubborn self-defence; they regard each other with alienated minds, 
and dread their Creator as the avenger of their transgression ; at 
last, they seek shelter in his mercy, soften to repentance, and 
melt in supplication. Both before and after the fall, the different 
sentiments arising from difference of sex are traced out with in¬ 
imitable delicacy and philosophical propriety. Adam has always 
that pre-eminence in dignity, and Eve in loveliness, which 




THE BELLES LETTRES. 


591 


we should naturally look for in the father and mother of man¬ 
kind. 

The following are some of the more important kinds of poetry, 
with a few of the leading features by which one is distinguished 
from the other. 

Epic Poetry claims a very remote origin, and retains its original 
characteristics as unpolluted as any other division of the art. The 
recital of the achievements of heroes and of ancestors, of warriors 
who had fallen, or who had conquered in battle, would naturally 
be a subject which, in the earliest periods of society, would call 
forth the poet’s powers. This mode of poetic writing, besides 
being old, is allowed to be the most dignified, elevated, and ma¬ 
jestic, fitted only for the cultivation of men of the finest and most 
diversified genius. An epic poem is properly the recital of some 
illustrious enterprise in a poetical form. This definition appears 
to comprehend several other poems besides the Iliad of Homer, th* 
iEneid of Virgil, and the Jerusalem of Tasso; which are, perhaps, 
the three most regular and complete epic works that were ever 
composed. Dr. Blair does not scruple to class such poems as 
Milton’s Paradise Lost, Lucan’s Pharsalia, Statius’s Thebaid, 
Ossian’s Fingal and Temora, Camoen’s Lusiad, Voltaire’s 
Henriade, Cam bray’s Telemachus, Glover’s Leonidas, Wilkie’s 
Epigoniad, under the same composition with the Iliad and iEneid. 
They are all, undoubtedly, epic; that is, poetical recitals of great 
adventures. 

An epic poem, however, is defective if its actions be not in¬ 
teresting as well as great; for a narrative of mere valour may be 
so constructed as to prove cold and tiresome. “ Much will de¬ 
pend,” says Dr. Blair, “on the happy choice of some subject, 
which will by its nature interest the public; as when the poet 
selects for his hero one who is the founder, or the deliverer, or 
the favourite of his nation ; or when he writes achievements that 
have been highly celebrated, or have been connected with impor¬ 
tant consequences to any public cause. Most of the great epic 
poems are fortunate in this respect, and must have been very in¬ 
teresting to those ages in which they w^ere composed. On this 
principle the subject of the Paradise Lost must be considered as 
more generally interesting than that of any other poem.” 

Lyric Poetry , or the ode, is very ancient, and was probably the 
first species which was invented. It had its source, we may sup¬ 
pose, from the heart, and was employed to express, with becoming 
fervour and dignity, the grateful sense man entertained of ti e 
blessings which daily flowed from God, the fountain of all good. 
In process of time, however, it was employed to solicit the aid of 


rm 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


the Supreme Being in time of trouble; as is plain from the odes 
written by king David and others, and collected by the Jewish 
sanhedrim into the book of Psalms, to be sung at their feasts, 
festivals, and on other solemn occasions. Lyric poetry, as its 
name imports, is intended to be sung or accompanied with music, 
a distinction not originally confined to any one kind of poetic 
writing, as music and poetry were coeval, but which the ode was 
allowed to retain when these two arts were separated. Tt is a 
composition in which dignity, energy, and passion, are conspicuous ; 
it is usually meant to be a warm transcript of the poet’s heart, a 
character which it still, in a great measure, retains, though, in 
modern times, it has been divided into four denominations, each 
more or less distinct and different from the others. These are 
sacred odes; heroic odes ; moral and philosophical odes ; festive 
and amatory odes. The most celebrated writers of odes of an¬ 
tiquity are Pindar, Anacreon, Horace. In England, Dryden’s 
Ode to St. Cecilia; the Tears of Scotland, by Smollett; and 
Collins’s Ode to the Passions ; may be mentioned as, probablv, 
the finest specimens of lyric composition which the country has 
yet produced. 

It remains only to advert to those odes which are of the sublime 
and noble kind, and distinguished from others by their elevation 
of thought and diction, as well by the variety or irregularity of 
their numbers as the frequent transactions and bold excursions 
with which they are enriched. The most ancient specimen of this 
kind extant is the celebrated song or ode of Moses, written on 
the passage of the Israelites over the Red Sea. At the end of 
this song we are told, that “ Miriam the prophetess, the sister of 
Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand, and all the women went out 
after her with timbrels and with dances. And Miriam answered 
them, Sing ye to the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously ; 
the horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea,” Exod. xv. 
This passage is set to music by Handel, and forms one of the 
most sublime of his choruses. This ode of Moses is incom¬ 
parably better than any thing the heathen poets have produced of 
the kind, and is considered as a master-piece of ancient eloquence. 

The Pindaric Ode, so called from Pindar, an ancient Greek 
poet, celebrated for the boldness of his flights, and the seeming 
wildness and irregularity that runs through his compositions, is the 
most exalted style of poetry. The odes of Pindar were held in 
such high estimation by the ancients, that it was fabled, in honour 
of their sweetness, that the bees, while he was in the cradle, 
brought honey to his lips; and the victors at the Olympic 
and other games did not think the crown a sufficient reward for 


THE BELLES LETTRES. 


59 S 


tlieir merit, unless tlieir achievements were celebrated in Pindar’s 
songs; most wisely presaging that the first would decay, but the 
other would endure for ever. With respect to those modern 
compositions which are usually called Pindaric Odes, (but which 
ought rather to be distinguished by the name of Irregular Odes,) 
the English language furnishes a considerable number that deserve 
commendation. Dryden’s Ode, entitled Alexander’s Feast, is 
perhaps as valuable in loose and wild numbers, as it could have 
been written in the manner of Pindar. 

We shall close our observations on the sublime kind of lyric 
poetry, by the introduction of Collins’s celebrated Ode to the 
Passions, which has been rarely equalled. 

“ When Music, heavenly maid, was young; 

While yet in early Greece she sung; 

The Passions oft, to hear her shell, 

Throng’d around her magic cell; 

Exulting, trembling, raging, fainting, 

Possest beyond the Muse’s painting: 

By turns they felt the glowing mind 
Disturb’d, delighted, rais’d, refin’d ; 

Till once, ’tis said, when all were fir’d, 

Fill’d with fury, rapt, inspir’d, 

From the supporting myrtles round 
They snatch’d her instruments of sound ; 

And, as they oft had heard apart 
Sweet lessons of her forceful art, 

Each, for madness ruled the hour, 

Would prove his own expressive power. 

First Fear his hand, its skill to try, 

Amid the chords bewilder’d laid, 

And back recoil’d, he knew not why, 

E’en at the sound himself had made. 

Next Anger rush’d—his eyes on fire 

In lightnings own’d his secret stings ; _^ 

In one rude crash he struck the lyre, 

And swept with hurried hand the strings. 

With woeful measures wan Despair, 

Low sullen sounds, his grief beguil’d; 

A solemn, strange, and mingled air; 

’Twas sad by fits, by starts ’twas wild. 

4 G 


594 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


But thou, O Hope ! with eyes so fair, 

What was thy delighted measure ? 

Still it whisper'd promis'd pleasure, 

And bade the lovely scenes at distance hail f 
Still would her touch the strain prolong, 

And from the rocks, the woods, the vale, 

She call'd on Echo still through all hvT song; 

And where her sweetest theme she chose, 

A soft responsive voice was heard at every close, 

And Hope enchanted smil'd, and wav’d her golden hair. 

And longer had she sung,—but with a frown 
Revenge impatient rose; 

He threw his blood-stain'd sword in thunder down, 

And with a withering look 
The war-denouncing trumpet took, 

And blew a blast so loud and dread, 

Were ne'er prophetic sounds so full of woe; 

And ever and anon he beat 

The doubling drum with furious heat; 

And though sometimes, each dreary pause between, 

Dejected Pity at his side 
Her soul-subduing voice applied. 

Yet still he kept his wild unalter'd mien, 

While each strain'd ball of sight seem'd bursting from his 
head. 

Thy numbers, Jealousy, to nought were fix'd; 

Sad proof of thy distressful state ! 

Of differing themes the veering song was mix'd; 

And now it courted Love, now raving called on Hate. 

With eyes upraised as one inspired, 

Pale Melancholy sat retired, 

And from her wild sequester'd seat, 

In notes by distance made more sweet, 

Pour d through the mellow horn her pensive soul; 

And, dashing soft from rocks around, 

•Bubbling runnels join'd the sound. 

Through glades and glooms the mingled measure stole, 

Or o'er some haunted stream with fond delay, 

Round an holy calm diffusing, 

Love of peace, and lonely musing, 

In hollow murmurs died away. 


THE BELLES LKTTRES. 


595 


/ 


But O ! how alter’d was its sprightlier tone, 

When Cheerfulness, a nymph of healthiest hue, 

Her bow across her shoulder flung, 

Her ouskins gemm’d with morning dew, 

Blew an inspiring air, that dale and thicket rung; 

The hunter’s call to Faun and Dryad known ! 

The oak-crown’d sisters, and their chaste-eyed queen, 
Satyrs and sylvan boys were seen 
Peeping from forth their alleys green ; 

Brown Exercise rejoic’d to hear, 

And Sport leapt up, and seiz’d his beechen spear. 

Last came Jov’s ecstatic trial: 

j 7 

He, with viny crown advancing. 

First to the lively pipe his hand addrest, 

But soon he saw the brisk awakening viol, 

Whose sweet, enchanting voice he lov’d the best. 
They would have thought who heard the strain 
They saw in Tempe’s vale her native maids, 

Amidst the festal-sounding shades, 

To some unwearied minstrel dancing, 

While, as his flying fingers kiss’d the strings, 

Love framed with Mirth a gay fantastic round: 
Loose were her tresses seen, her zone unbound; 
And he amidst his frolic play, 

As if he would the charming air repay, 

Shook thousand odours from his dewy wings. 

O Music ! sphere-descended maid, 

Friend of pleasure, wisdom’s aid, 

Why, goddess, why, to us denied, 

Lay’st thou thy ancient lyre aside P 
As in that lov’d Athenian bower 
You learn’d an all-commanding power, ’ 

Thy mimic soul, O nymph endear’d, 

Can well recall what then it heard. 

Where is thy native simple heart, 

Devote to virtue, fancy, art ? 

Arise, as in that elder time, 

Warm, energic, chaste, sublime ! 

Thy wonders, in that god-like age, 

Fill thy recording sister’s page— 

’Tis said, and I believe the tale, 

Thy humblest reed could more prevail, 



596 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION 


Had more of strength, diviner rage, 

Than all which charms this laggard age ; 

E’en all at once together found, 

Cecilia’s mingled world of sound. 

Oh ! bid our vain endeavours cease ; 

Revive the just designs of Greece ; 

Return in all thy simple state ; 

Confirm the tales her sons relate ! 

Elegiac Poetry .—This is a mournful and plaintive, but yet 
tender and engaging, kind of poem. It was invented to mourn 
the death of a friend, but was afterwards made use of to express 
the complaints of lovers, or any other melancholy subject. In 
process of time, subjects of desire, expostulation, reproach, admo¬ 
nition, and almost every other were admitted into elegy ; funeral 
lamentations and affairs of love seem, however, most agreeable to its 
character, which is that of gentleness and tenuity. No epigram¬ 
matic points or conceits, nor, in short, any little ornament of any 
kind is admissible in this species of poetry ; they must give place 
to the nobler beauties of nature and the passions. Elegy rejects 
whatever is facetious, satirical, or majestic, and is content to be 
simple and unaffected; yet in this humble state it is sweet and 
engaging, elegant and attractive. This poem may be adorned with 
frequent commiserations, complaints, exclamations, addresses to 
things or persons, short digressions, allusions, comparisons, and 
sometimes with short descriptions. The language should be free 
from any harshness, easy, perspicuous, tender and pathetic ; 
the numbers should be smooth and flowing, so as to captivate the 
ear with their uniform sweetness and delicacy. Of elegies on the 
subject of death, that by Mr. Gray, written in a country church¬ 
yard, is one of the best that is to be found in our language, and 
may be justly esteemed as a masterpiece; but being almost 
universally known it would be superfluous to insert it here. 

Pastoral Poetry .—This word takes its name from the Latin 
pastor, a shepherd ; the subjects being uniformly those of pastoral 
or rural life; and the persons introduced either shepherds or other 
rustics. Pastoral poetry is not of very ancient origin. Figures 
and descriptions of a pastoral kind indeefi occur m the earliest 
poems that have been handed down to us; but these descriptions 
are incidental only; and it is now allowed by all critics that oas- 
toral poetry was not cultivated as a separate and distinct branch of 
the art till towns and cities had been built and inhabited, and men 
had become comparatively luxurious. Theocritus, who was the 
father or inventor of this kind of poetry, has been deservedly 


THE BELLES LETTRES. 


597 


esteemed by the best critics; and by some is preferred to all 
other pastoral writers, with perhaps the single exception of Gesner. 
Virgil succeeded Theocritus, and he has imitated him with great 
success. His first pastoral is generally allowed to be the most 
perfect. Spenser was the first of our countrymen who acquired 
any considerable reputation by this method of writing. 

Didactic , or Preceptive Poetry .—The method of writing pre¬ 
cepts in verse, and embellishing them with the graces of poetry, 
probably arose from a consideration of the frailties and perverseness 
of human nature; and was intended to engage the affections, in 
order to improve the mind and amend the heart. Didactic poetry, 
as distinguished from other species of poetry, which are intended 
by indirect methods to make useful impressions on the mind, 
openly professes its intention of conveying knowledge and instruc¬ 
tion. It differs, therefore, in the form only, not in the scope and 
substance, from a philosophical, a moral, or a critical treatise in 
prose; but at the same time, by means of its form, it has several 
advantages over prose instruction. Of this kind of poetry the 
most celebrated pieces are Pope’s Essay on Man, his Ethic Epistles, 
Blackmore’s Creation, and part of Young’s Night Thoughts. 

The style of didactic poems should be rich, in order that the 
barrenness of the precept may be lost in the lustre of the language. 
“ It ought,'” says Dr. Warton, “ to abound in the most bold and 
forcible metaphors, the most glowing and picturesque epithets; it 
ought to be elevated and enlivened by pomp of numbers and 
majesty of words, and by every figure that can lift a language 
above the vulgar and current expressions.” It has been observed 
that any thing in nature may be the subject of this poem. Some 
things, however, will appear to more advantage than others, as they 
give a greater latitude to genius, and admit of more poetical 
ornament. Natural history and philosophy are copious subjects ; 
and in these precepts may be decorated with all the flowers of 
poetry. 

Descriptive Poetry .—This can scarcely be said to denote any 
one particular class of poetic compositions, since most of the kinds 
we have named are in some measure descriptive, and yet there are 
very few poems which are purely descriptive. There are, however, 
some, such as Thomson’s Seasons, or MiltonV L’Allegro, more 
professedly descriptive than others, as description is their pre¬ 
dominating and distinguishing characteristic. The other British 
poets who stand highest in this department are Ossian, Milton, 
Denham, Falconer, Grahame, and Scott. 

The following is esteemed a beautiful example of descriptive 
poetry, extracted from “ The Lady of the Lake, written by the last 


% 


598 YOUNG man’s companion. 

mentioned eminent writer. It describes the interview between 
Fitzjames and Ellen, in tlie island of the lake. 

“ The western waves of ebbing day 
Roll’d o’er the glen their level way; 

Each purple peak, each flinty spire, 

Was bath’d in floods of living fire ; 

But not a setting beam could glow 
Within the dark ravines below ; 

Where twin’d the path, in shadow hid, 

Round many a rocky pyramid, 

Shooting abruptly from the dell 
Its thunder-splinter’d pinnacle; 

Round many an insulated mass, 

The native bulwarks of the pass, 

Huge as the tower, which builders vain 
Presumptuous piled on Shinar’s plain. 

Their rocky summits, split and rent, 

Form’d turret, dome, or battlement, 

Or seem’d fantastically set 
With cupola or minaret, 

Wild crests as pagod ever deck’d, 

Or mosque of eastern architect. 

Nor were these earth-born castles bare. 

Nor lack’d they many a banner fair ; 

For, from their shiver’d brows display’d 
Far o’er the unfathomable glade, 

All twinkling with the dew-drop sheen, 

The briar-rose fell in streamers green, 

And creeping shrubs of thousand dyes 
Wav’d in the west-wind’s summer sighs. 

Boon nature scatter’d fir and wild 

Each plant or flower, the mountain’s child— 

Here eglantine embalm’d the air, 

Hawthorn and hazel mingled there ; 

The primrose pale, and violet flower, 

Found in each clift a narrow bower; 

Fox-glove and night-shade, side by side, 

Emblems of punishment and pride, 

Group’d their dark hues with every stain 
The weather-beaten crags retain ; 

With boughs that quaked at every breath, 

Grey birch and aspen wept beneath; 

Aloft, the ash and warrior oak 
Cast anchor in the rifted rock ; 


THE BELLES LETTliES. 


590 


And higher yet, the pine-tree hung 
His shatter'd trunk, and frequent flung, 
Where seem'd the cliffs to meet on high, 

His bows athwart the narrow’d sky. 

Highest of all, where white peaks glanced, 
Where glistening streamers waved and danced, 
The wanderer's eye could barely view 
The summer heaven’s delicious blue; 

So wondrous wild, the whole might seem 
The scenery of a fairy dream. 

Onward, amid the copse ’gan peep 
A narrow inlet still and deep, 

Affording scarce such breadth of brim, 

As served the wild- duck's brood to swim ; 

Lost for a space through thickets veering, 

But broader when again appearing, 

Tall rocks and tufted knolls their face 
Could on the dark-blue mirror trace ; 

And farther as the hunter stray'd, 

Still broader sweep its channel made. 

The shaggy mounds no longer stood 
Emerging from entangled wood, 

But, wave-encircled, seem'd to float, 

Like castle girdled with its moat; 

Yet broader floods extending still, 

Divide them from their parent hill, 

Till each, retiring, claims to be 
An islet in an inland sea. 

And now, to issue from the glen, 

No pathway meets the wanderer’s ken, 

Unless he climb, with footing nice, 

A far projecting precipice. 

The broom's tough roots his ladder made. 

The hazel saplings lent their aid ; 

And thus an airy point he won, 

Where, gleaming with the setting sun, 

One burnish’d sheet of living gold, 
Loch-Katrine lay beneath him roll’d ; 

In all her length far winding lay, 

With promontory, creek, and bay, 

And islands that, empurpled bright, 

Floated amid the livelier light; 

And mountains that, like giants, stand 
To sentinel enchanted land. 


600 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


High on the south, huge Benvenue 
Down to the lake in masses threw 
Crags, knolls, and mounds, confus’dly hurl’d, 
The fragments of an earlier world ; 

A wild’ring forest feather'd o’er 
His ruin’d sides and summit hoar, 

While on the north, through middle air, 
Ben-An heaved high his forehead bare. 

From the steep promontory gazed 
The stranger, raptured and amazed. 

And “ What a scene were here,” he cried. 

“ For princely pomp or churchman’s pride ! 
On this bold brow, a lordly tower; 

In that soft vale, a lady’s bower; 

On yonder meadow, far away, 

The turrets of a cloister grey. 

How blithely might the bugle-horn 
Chide, on the lake, the lingering morn ! 

How sweet, at eve, the lover’s lute 
Chime when the groves were still and mute f 
And when the midnight moon should lave 
Her forehead in the silver wave, 

How solemn on the ear would come 
The holy matin’s distant hum ; 

While the deep peal’s commanding tone 
Should wake, in yonder islet lone, 

A sainted hermit from his cell, 

To drop a bead with every knell; 

And bugle, lute, and bell, and all, 

Should each bewildered stranger call 
To friendly feast, and lighted hall. 

Blithe were it then to wander here ! 

But now—beshrew yon nimble deer,— 

Like that same hermit’s, thin and spare 
The copse must give my evening fare ; 

Some mossy bank my couch must be, 

Some rustling oak my canopy. 

Yet pass we that,—the war and chase 
Give little choice of resting-place ; 

A summer night, in green-wood spent. 

Were but to-morrow’s merriment; 

But hosts may in these wilds abound, 

Such as are better miss’d than found ; 


\ 


THE BELLES LETTRES. 


601 


To meet with highland plunderers here 
Were worse than loss of steed or deer. 

I am alone—my bugle strain 
May call some straggler of the train ; 

Or fall the worst that may betide, 

Ere now this faulchion has been tried.'” 

But scarce again his horn he wound, 

When lo ! forth starting at the sound. 

From underneath an aged oak, 

That slanted from the islet rock, 

A damsel, guider of its way, 

A little skiff shot to the bay, 

That round the promontory steep 
Led its deep line in graceful sweep, 

Eddying in almost viewless wave, 

The weeping willow twig to lave, 

And kiss, with whispering sound and slow, 
The beach of pebbles bright as snow. 

The boat had touch’d this silver strand, 

Just as the hunter left his stand, 

And stood concealed amid the brake, 

To view this Lady of the Lake. 

The maiden paused, as if again 
She thought to catch the distant strain, 

With head up-raised and look intent, 

And eye and ear attentive bent, 

And locks flung back, and lips apart, 

Like monument of Grecian art. 

In list’ning mood, she seemed to stand 
The guardian Naiad of the strand; 

And ne’er did Grecian chisel trace 
A Nymph, a Naiad, or a Grace, 

Of finer form, or lovelier face ! 

What though the sun, with ardent frown, 
Had slightly tinged her cheek with brown,— 
The sportive toil, which, short and light, 

Had dyed her glowing hue so bright, 

Served too in hastier swell to show 
Short glimpses of a breast of snow; 

What though no rule of courtly grace 
To measured mood had trained her pace,— 
A foot more light, a step more true, 

Ne’er from the heath-flower dashed the dew 

4 H 


cm 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


E’en the slight hare-bell raised its head, 
Elastic from her airy tread ; 

What though upon her speech there hung 
The accents of the mountain tongue,— 
Those silver sounds, so soft, so dear, 

The list'ner held his breath to hear. 

A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid; 
Her satin snood, her silken plaid, 

Her golden brooch, such birth betray’d. 

And seldom was a snood amid 
Such wild luxuriant ringlets hid, 

Whose glossy black to shame might bring 
The plumage of the raven's wing; 

And seldom o’er a breast so fair 
Mantled a plaid with modest care; 

And never brooch the folds combined 
Above a heart more good and kind. 

Her kindness and her worth to spy, 

You need but gaze on Ellen’s eye ; 

Not Katrine, in her mirror blue, 

Gives back the shaggy banks more true, 
Than every free-born glance confess'd 
The guileless movements of her breast; 
Whether joy danced in her dark eye, 

Or woe or pity claimed a sigh, 

Or filial love was glowing there, 

Or meek devotion poured a prayer, 

Or tale of injury called forth 
The indignant spirit of the north. 

One only passion, unrevealed, 

With maiden pride the maid conceal'd, 

Yet not less purely felt the flame ;— 

O ! need I tell that passion’s name ? 

Impatient of the silent horn, 

Now on the gale her voice was borne: 

“ Father !" she cried ;—the rocks around 
Loved to prolong the gentle sound. 

Awhile she paused, no answer came,— 

“ Malcolm, was thine the blast ?"—the name 
Less resolutely uttered fell; 

The echoes could not catch the swell. 

“ A stranger I,” the Huntsman said, 
Advancing from the hazel shade. 




THE BELLES LETTRES. 


603 


The maid alarmed, with hasty oar, 
Pushed the light shallop from the shore, 
And, when a space was gained between, 
Closer she drew her bosom's screen ; 

(So forth the startled swan would swing, 
So turn to prune his ruffled wing.) 

Then safe, though fluttered and amaz’d, 
She paus’d, and on the stranger gaz’d. 
Not his the form, nor his the eye, 

That youthful maidens wont to fly. 

On his bold visage, middle age 
Had slightly pressed its signet sage, 

Yet had not quenched the open truth, 
And fiery vehemence of youth ; 

Forward and frolic glee was there, 

The will to do, the soul to dare; 

The sparkling glance, soon blown to fire* 
Of hasty love, or headlong ire. 

His limbs were cast in manly mould, 

For hardy sports, or contest bold ; 

And though in peaceful garb array’d, 
And weaponless, except his blade ; 

His stately mien as well implied 
A high-born heart, a martial pride, 

As if a baron’s crest he wore, 

And sheath’d in armour trod the shore. 
Slighting the petty need he show’d, 

He told of his benighted road ; 

His ready speech flow’d fair and free, 

In phrase of gentlest courtesy; 

Yet seem’d that tone, and gesture bland. 
Less used to sue than to command. 

A while the maid the stranger eyed, 
And re-assured, at last replied, 

That highland halls were open still 
To wilder’d wanderers of the hill. 

“ Nor think you unexpected come 
To yon lone isle, our desert home ; 
Before the heath had lost the dew, 

This morn, a couch was pulled for you; 
On yonder mountain’s purple head 
Have ptarmigan and heath-cock bled, 
And our broad nets have swept the mere. 
To furnish fojth your evening cheer.”'"- 


60i 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


“ Now by the rood, my lovely maid, 

Your courtesy has erred,” he said; 

“ No right have I to claim, misplac’d. 

The welcome of expected guest. 

A wanderer here by fortune tost, 

My way, my friends, my courser lost, 

I ne’er before, believe me, fair, 

Have ever drawn your mountain air, 

Till on this lake’s romantic strand, 

I found a fay in fairy land. ”— 

“ I well believe,” the maid replied, 

As her light skiff approached the side; 

“ I well believe, that ne’er before 
Your foot has trod Loch-Katrine’s shore; 

But yet, as far as yesternight, 

Old Allan-bane foretold your plight,—- 
A grey-hair’d sire, whose eye intent 
Was on the vision’d future bent. 

He saw your steed, a dappled grey, 

Lie dead beneath the birchen way; 

Painted exact your form and mien, 

Your hunting suit of Lincoln green, 

That tassell’d horn so gaily gilt, 

That faulchion’s crooked blade and hilt, 

That cap with heron’s plumage trim, 

And yon two hounds so dark and grim. 

He bade that all should ready be, 

To grace a guest of fair degree ; 

But light I held his prophecy, 

And deemed it was my father’s horn, 

Whose echoes o’er the lake were borne.”— 

The stranger smiled :—“ Since to your home, 
A destin’d errant knight I come, 

Announc’d by prophet sooth and old, 

Doom’d, doubtless, for achievement bold, 

I’ll lightly front each high emprize, 

For one kind glance of those bright eyes ; 
Permit me, first, the task to guide 
Your fairy frigate o’er the tide.”— 

The maid, with smile suppress’d and sly. 

The toil unwonted saw him try; 

For seldom, sure, if e’er before, 

His noble hand had grasp’d an oar; 


THE BELLES LETTllES. 


605 


Yet with main strength his strokes he drew, 
And o’er the lake the shallop flew; 

With heads erect, and whimpering cry, 

The hounds behind their passage ply. 

Nor frequent does the bright oar break 
The darkening mirror of the lake, 

Until the rocky isle they reach, 

And moor their shallop on the beach. 

The stranger view’d the shore around ;— 
’Twas all so close with copse-wood bound, 

Nor track nor path-way might declare 
That human feet frequented there, 

Until the mountain-maiden show’d 
A clambering unsuspected road, 

That winded through the tangled screen, 

And open’d on a narrow green, 

Where weeping birch and willow round 
With their long fibres swept the ground. 

Here, for retreat in dang’rous hour, 

Some chief had fram’d a rustic bower. 

It was a lodge of ample size, 

But strange of structure and device; 

Of such materials, as around 
The workman’s hand had readiest found. 
Lopped of their boughs, their hoar trunks bare<h 
A nd by the hatchet rudely squared, 

To give the walls their destined height, 

The sturdy oak and ash unite; 

While moss and clay and leaves combin’d 
To fence each crevice from the wind. 

The lighter pine-trees, over head, 

Their slender length for rafters spread, 

And withered heath and rushes dry 
Supplied a russet canopy. 

Due westward, fronting to the green, 

A rural portico was seen, 

Aloft on native pillars borne, 

Of mountain fir with bark unshorn, 

Where Ellen’s hand had taught to twine 
The ivy and Idsean vine, 

The clematis, the favour’d flower 
Which boasts the name of virgin-bower, 

And every hardy plant could bear 
Loch-Katrine’s keen and searching air 


606 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


An instant in this porch she staid, 

And gaily to the stranger said, 

“ On Heaven and on thy Lady call, 

And enter the enchanted hall!” 

“ My hope, my heaven, my trust must be, 
My gentle guide, in following thee.”— 

He crossed the threshold—and a clang 
Of angry steel that instant rang. 

To his bold brow his spirit rushed, 

But soon for vain alarm he blushed. 

When on the floor he saw displayed, 

Cause of the din, a naked blade, 

Dropped from the sheath, that careless flung 
Upon a stag's huge antlers swung; 

For all around, the walls to grace, 

Hung trophies of the fight or chase : 

A target there, a bugle here, 

A battle-axe, a hunting spear, 

And broad-swords, bows, and arrows store, 
With the tusked trophies of the boar. 

Here grins the wolf as when he died, 

And there the wild-cat's brindled hide 
The frontlet of the elk adorns, 

Or mantles o’er the bison's horns; 

Pennons and flags defaced and stained, 

That blackening streaks of blood retained, 
And deer-skins, dappled, dun, and white, 
With otter’s fur and seal’s unite, 

In rude and uncouth tapestry all, 

To garnish forth the sylvan hall. 

The wondering stranger round him gazed, 
And next the fallen weapon raised; 

Few were the arms whose sinewy strength 
Sufficed to stretch it forth at length ; 

And as the brand he poised and swayed, 

“ I never knew but one,” he said, 

“ Whose stalwart arm might brook to wield 
A blade like this in battle field,” 

She sighed, then smiled and took the word; 
“ You see the guardian champion’s sword : 
As light it trembles in his hand, 

As in my grasp an hazel wand ; 

My sire’s tali form might grace the part 
Of Ferragus, or Ascabart; 






THE BELLES LETTRES. 


607 


But in tlie absent giant’s hold 
Are women now, and menials old.”— 

The mistress of the mansion came, 

Mature of age, a graceful dame; 

Whose easy step and stately por f 
Had well become a princely cour 
To whom, though more than kindred knew. 
Young Ellen gave a mother’s due. 

Meet welcome to her guest she made, 

And every courteous rite was paid 
That hospitality could claim, 

Though all unasked his birth and name. 

Such then the reverence to a guest, 

That fellest foe might join the feast, 

And from his deadliest foeman’s door 
Unquestioned turn, the banquet o’er. 

At length his rank the stranger names,— 

44 The knight of Snowdoun, James Fitz-James • 
Lord of a barren heritage, 

Which his brave sires, from age to age, 

By their good swords had held with toil. 

His sire had fallen in such turmoil. 

And he, God wot, was forced to stand 
Oft for his right with blade in hand. 

This morning with Lord Moray’s train 
Lie chased a stalwart stag in vain, 

Out-stripped his comrades, missed the deer. 
Lost his good steed, and wandered here.”— 
Fain would the knight in turn require 
The name and state of Ellen’s sire. 

We 1 ! showed the elder lady’s mien 
That courts and cities she had seen ; 

Ellen, though more her look displayed 
The simple grace of sylvan maid, 

In speech and gesture, form and face, 

Showed she was come of gentle race ; 

’Twere strange in ruder rank to find 
Such looks, such manners, and such mind. 
Each hint the knight of Snowdoun gave 
Dame Margaret heard with silence grave ; 

Or Ellen, innocently gay, 

Turned all inquiry light away. 

“ Wierd women we ! by dale and down 
We dwell afar from tower and town. 


cos 


YOUNG man's COMPANION. 

We stem the flood, we ride the blast, 

On wandering knights our spells we cast, 
While viewless minstrels touch the string, 
’Tis thus our charmed rhymes we sing.”— 
She sung, and still a harp unseen 
Filled up the symphony between. 

Song. 

Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er, 

Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking 
Dream of battled fields no more, 

Days of danger, nights of waking. 

In our isle’s enchanted hall, 

Hands unseen thy couch are strewing, 
Fairy strains of music fall, 

Every sense in slumber dewing. 

Soldier, rest! thy warfare o’er, 

Dream of fighting fields no more; 

Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking, 
Morn of toil, nor night of waking. 

“No rude sound shall reach thine ear, 
Armour’s clang, or war-steed champing ; 
Trump nor pibroch summon here 

Mustering clan, or squadron tramping. 
Yet the lark’s shrill fife may come 
At the day-break from the fallow, 

And the bittern sound his drum, 

Booming from the sedgy shallow. 

Ruder sounds shall none be near, 

Guards nor warders challenge here, 

Here’s no war-steed’s neigh and champing. 
Shouting clans or squadrons stamping.”—- 

She paused—then, blushing, led the lay 
To grace the stranger of the day; 

Her mellow notes a while prolong 
The cadence of the flowing song, 

Till to her lips in measured frame 
The minstrel verse spontaneous came. 

Song continued. 

“ Huntsman, rest! thy chase is done, 

While our slumbrous spells assail ye. 
Dream not, with the rising sun, 

Bugles here shall sound reveillie. 




THE BELLES LETTRES. 


609 


Sleep ! the deer is in his den ; 

Sleep ! thy hounds are by thee lying; 

Sleep ! nor dream in yonder glen, 

How thy gallant steed lay dying. 
Huntsman, rest! thy chase is done, 

Think not of the rising sun, 

For at dawning to assail ye, 

Here no bugles sound reveillie.” 

The hall was cleared—the stranger’s bed 
Was thereof mountain heather spread, 

Where oft an hundred guests had lain, 

And dreamed their forest sports again. 

But vainly did the heath-flower shed 
Its moorland fragrance round his head; 

Not Ellen’s spell had lulled to rest 
The fever of his troubled breast. 

In broken dreams the image rose 
Of varied perils, pains and woes : 

His steed now flounders in the brake. 

Now sinks his barge upon the lake; 

Now leader of a broken host, 

His standard falls, his honour’s lost. 

Then,—from my couch may heavenly might 
Chase that worst phantom of the night! 

Again returned the scenes of youth, 

Of confident undoubting truth ; 

Again his soul he interchanged 

With friends whose hearts were long estranged. 

They come, in dim procession led, 

The cold, the faithless, and the dead ; 

As warm each hand, each brow as gay, 

As if they parted yesterday; 

And doubt distracts him at the view, 

O! were his senses false or true ? 

Dreamed he of death, or broken vow, 

Or is it all a vision now ? 

At length, with Ellen in a grove, 

He seemed to walk, and speak of love; 

She listened with a blush and sigh, 

His suit was warm, his hopes were high. 

He sought her yielded hand to clasp, 

And a cold gauntlet met his grasp: 

4 i 




610 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

The phantom's sex was changed and gone. 
Upon its head a helmet shone; 

Slowly enlarged to giant size, 

With darkened cheek and threatening eves. 
The grisly visage, stern and hoar, 

To Ellen still a likeness bore.— 

He woke, and panting with affright, 

Recalled the vision of the night. 

The hearth’s decaying brands were red. 

And deep and dusky lustre shed, 

Half showing, half concealing all 
The uncouth trophies of the hall. 

Mid those the stranger fixed his eye 
Where that huge faulchion hung on high, 

And thoughts on thoughts, a countless throng, 
Rush’d, chasing countless thoughts along, 

Until the giddy whirl to cure, 

He rose and sought the moon-shine pure. 

The wild rose, eglantine, and broom, 
Wasted around their rich perfume; 

The birch-trees wept in fragrant balm, 

The aspens slept beneath the calm ; 

The silver light, with quivering glance. 

Played on the water’s still expanse,— 

Wild were the heart whose passion’s sway 
Could rage beneath the sober ray I 
He felt its calm, that warrior guest. 

While thus he communed with his breast: 

“ Why is it at each turn I trace 
Some memory of that exiled race ? 

Can I not mountain maiden spy, 

But she must bear the Douglas eve ? 

Can I not view a highland brand, 

But it must match the Douglas hand ? 

Can I not frame a fevered dream, 

But still the Douglas is the theme ? 

I’ll dream no more—by manly mind 
Not even in sleep is will resign’d. 

My midnight orison said o’er, 

I’ll turn to rest, and dream no more ** 

His midnight orisons he told, 

A prayer with every bead of gold, 

Consigned to heaven his cares and woes, 

And sunk in undisturbed repose ; 


THE BELLES LETTRES. 


611 


Until the heath-cock shrilly crew, 
And morning dawned on Ben-venue. 


VERSIFICATION. 


Although it has been explained that a regular measure does not 
constitute of itself true poetry, yet there are certain principles of 
versification which it is of importance to attend to whenever 
poetry assumes the form of measure. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety 
of syllables, according to certain laws. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse, to 
the last sound or syllable of another. 

Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse. 

Feet .—A certain number of syllables connected form a foot. 
They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it 
were, steps along through the verse, in a measured pace; and it is 
necessary that the syllables which.mark this regular movement of 
the voice, should in some manner be distinguished from the others. 
This distinction was made among the ancient Romans, by dividing 
their syllables into long and short, and ascertaining their quantity 
by an exact proportion of time in sounding them. In English, sylla¬ 
bles are divided into accented and unaccented; and the accented 
syllables being as strongly distinguished from the unaccented by the 
peculiar stress of the voice upon them, are equally capable of making 
the movement, and pointing out the regular paces of the voice, 
as the long syllables were by their quantity among the Romans. 
When the feet are formed by an accent on vowels, they are ex¬ 
actly of the same nature as the ancient feet, and have the same 
just quantity in their syllables. So that, in this respect, we have 
all that the ancients had, and something which they had not. We 
have, in fact, duplicates of each foot, yet with such a difference 
as to fit them for different purposes, to be applied at our pleasure. 

Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself; and it is 
upon the knowledge and right application of these powers, that the 
pleasures and effect of numbers chiefly depend. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of two or of three 
syllables, and are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, 
and four of three, as follows: 


Dissyllables. 

A Trochee — 

An Iambus w — 

A Spondee - 

A Pyrrhic 


Trissxjllables. 

A Dactyl — w w 
An Amphibrach w — w 
An Anapaest w ^ — 

A Tribrach w w w 


A trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unac¬ 
cented. An iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last 


612 


YOUNG Man's COMPANION. 

accented. A spondee has both the words or syllables accented. 
A pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented. A dactyl 
has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented. An 
amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the 
middle one accented. An anapaest has the first two syllables un¬ 
accented, and the last accented. A tribrach has all its syllables 
unaccented. 

Some of these feet may be denominated principal feet; as 
pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them. 
Such are the iambus, trochee, dactyl, and anapaest. The others 
may be termed secondary feet; because their chief use is to di¬ 
versify the numbers, and to improve the verse. 

Poetical pauses .—There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense, 
and one for melody, perfectly distinct from each other. The 
former may be called sentential, the latter, harmonic pauses. 

The sentential pauses are those which are known to us by the 
name of stops, and which have names given them ; as the comma, 
semicolon, colon, and period, hereafter to be explained. 

The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into the final pause 
and the csesural pause. These sometimes coincide with the sen¬ 
tential pause, sometimes Lave an independent state, that is, exist 
where there is no stop in tire sense. 

The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes the 
verse, and marks the measure : the csesural divides it into equal 
and unequal parts. 

The final pause preserves the melody, without interfering with 
the sense ; for the pause itself perfectly marks the bound of the 
metre, and being made only by a suspension of the voice, not 
by any change of note, it can never affect the sense. 

The caesura is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable 
of heroic verse. 

On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the second foot: as. 

The silver eel" in shining volumes roll’d, 

The yellow carp" in scales bedropp’d with gold. 

On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the third foot: as, 

Round broken columns" clasping ivy twin’d ; 

O’er heaps of ruin" stalk’d the stately hind. 

On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third foot: as, 

Oh say what stranger cause * yet unexplor’d, 

Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord. 

Melody, harmony, and expression, are the three great objects 
of poetical numbers. By melody, is meant, a pleasing effect pro¬ 
duced on the ear, from an apt arrangement of the constituent parts 
of verse according to the laws of measure and movement. By 


THE BELLES LETTIIES. 


613 


harmony, an effect produced by an action of tlie mind, in comparing 
the different members of a verse with each other, and perceiving a 
due and beautiful proportion between them. By expression, such 
a choice and arrangement of the constituent parts of verse, as serve 
to enforce and illustrate the thought or the sentiment. 

We shall consider each of these three objects in versification, 
both with respect to the feet and the pauses. 

With regard to melody; from the examples given it is evident 
that a considerable portion of melody is found in each of them, 
though in different degrees. Verses made of pure iambics have 
an excellent melody. 

That the final and csesural pauses contribute to melody, cannot 
be doubted by any person who reviews the instances, which we 
have already given of those pauses. To form lines of the first 
melody, the caesura must be at the end of the second, or the third 
foot, or in the middle of the third. 

With respect to harmony; verses composed of iambics have 
indeed a fine harmony ; but as the stress of the voice, in repeating 
such verses, is always in the same places, that is, on every second 
syllable, such a uniformity would disgust the ear in a long suc¬ 
cession ; and therefore such changes were sought for, as might in¬ 
troduce the pleasure of variety, without prejudice to melody ; or 
which might even contribute to its improvement. Of this nature 
was the introduction of the trochee, to form the first foot of an 
heroic verse : as, 

Favours to none, to all she smiles extends, 

O’ft she rejects, but never once offends. 

Another change admitted for the sake of variety, without pre¬ 
judice to melody, is the intermixture of pyrrhics and spondees ; 
in which, two impressions in the one foot make up for the want of 
one in the other ; and two long syllables compensate two short ones, 
so as to make the sum of the quantity of the two feet equal to 
two ‘iambics. 

£>n the green bank to look into the clear 

Smooth lake that to me seem’d another sky. 

Stood rul’d stood vast infinitude confin’d. 

We have before shown that the caesura improves the melody of 
verse; and we shall now speak of its other more important office, 
that of being the chief source of harmony in numbers. 

The first and lowest perception of harmony, by means of the 
caesura, arises from comparing two numbers of the same line with 
each other, divided in the same manner to be seen in the instances 
before mentioned; because the beauty of proportion in the numbers. 


614 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


according to each of these divisions, is found in nature ; being as 
one to two—two to three—or three to two. 

The next degree arises from comparing the members of a couplet, 
or two contiguous lines: as, 

See the bold youth" strain up the threat’ning steep, 
ltush thro’ the thickets," down the valleys sweep. 

Here we find the caesura of the first line at the end of the second 
toot; and in the middle of the third foot in the last line. 

Hang o’er their coursers’ heads " with eager speed, 

And earth rolls back " beneath the flying steed. 

In this couplet, the caesura is at the end of the third foot in 
the first line; and of the second in the latter line. 

The next perception ot harmony arises from comparing a greater 
number of lines, and observing the relative proportion of the cou¬ 
plets to each other, in point of similarity and diversity, as : 

Thy forests Windsor" and thy green retreats, 

At once the monarch’s " and the muse’s seats, 

Invite my lays." Be present Sylvan maids, 

Unlock your springs," and open all your shades. 

Not half so swift" the trembling doves can fly, 

When the fierce eagle" cleaves the liquid sky; 

Not half so swiftly" the fierce eagle moves, 

W hen through the clouds ' he drives the trembling doves. 

The last object in versification regards expression. When men 
express their sentiments by words, they naturally fell into that 
sort of movement of the voice which is consonant to that pro¬ 
duced by the emotion m the mind ; and the dactylic or anapaestic, 
the trochaic, iambic, or spondaic, prevails even in common dis¬ 
course, according to the different nature of the sentiments expressed. 

1 o imitate nature, therefore, the poet, in arranging his words in 
the artificial composition of verse, must take care to make the move¬ 
ment correspond to the sentiment, by the proper use of the several 
kinds of feet; and this is the first and most general source of ex¬ 
pression in numbers. 

That a judicious management of the feet and pauses may be 
peculiarly expressive of particular operations and sentiments, will 
sufficiently appear to the learner, by a few select examples under 
each of those heads. 

In the following instances, the vast dimensions of Satan are 
shown by an uncommon succession of long syllables, which detain 
us to survey the huge arch fiend, in his fixed posture :— 

So stretch’d oiit huge in length the arch fiend lay. 

The next example affords instances of the power of a trochee 
beginning a line when succeeded by an iambus : 


THE BELLES LETTRES. 


615 


-and sheer within 

Lights on his feet: as when a prowling wolf 
Leaps o’er the fence with ease into the fold. 

The trochee which begins the line shows Satan in the act of 
lighting: the iambus that follows, fixes him—“Lights on his feet."” 

The same artifice, in the beginning of the next line, makes us 
see the wolf —“ leap o’er the fence.” But as the mere act of 
leaping over the fence is not the only circumstance to be attended 
to, but also the facility with which it is done, this is strongly 
marked, not only by the smooth foot which follows—“ with ease” 
—itself very expressive, but likewise by a pyrrhic preceding the 
last foot—“ into the fold 11 —which indeed carries the wolf—■“ with 
ease into the fold ” 

We shall close the subject, with an example containing the 
united powers of many of the principles which have been explained. 

Dire was the tossing," deep the groans ' Despair" 

Tended the sick " busiest from ccfich to coiich 
And over them triumphant death * his dan 
Shook * but delay’d to strike. 



616 


YOUNG MA^S COMPANION. 


CHAPTER XVI. 

THE ARTS. 


, In the present state of the world the arts and sciences are 
becoming daily of more importance, and it is therefore more 
needful than ever to form just ideas respecting them. 

The term science is more particularly used for a systematic 
view of the principles of any branch of knowledge, comprehending 
the doctrine, reason, and theory, of the thing, without any imme¬ 
diate application of it to any uses or offices of life. 

Art is used for science or knowledge, reduced into practice. 
The term more particularly denotes a certain system or collection 
of lilies, precepts, and inventions or experiments, which, being 
duly observed, make the things a man undertakes succeed, and 
render them advantageous and agreeable. In this sense, art is 
opposed to science, which is a collection of speculative principles 
and conclusions. 

As all arts have this common property, that they respect human 
life, it is evident that some contribute to its necessities, as medicine 
and agriculture ; and others to its elegance, as music, painting, 
and poetry. The former seem to have been prior in time to the 
latter. Men must naturally have consulted how to live, and to 
support themselves, before they began to deliberate how to render 
life agreeable. Indeed this is confirmed by fact, as no nation has 
been known so barbarous and ignorant, as not, in some degree, to 
have cultivated the rudiments of these necessary arts; and hence 
possibly they may appear to be more excellent and worthy, as 
having claim to a preference derived from their seniority. The 
arts, however, of elegance are not destitute of pretensions, if it be 
true, that we were formed for something more than mere existence. 
.Nay farther, if well being be clearly preferable to mere being, 
and this without the other be contemptible, they may have reason 
perhaps to aspire even to a superiority. 

Most of the arts that are necessary to the subsistence, or con¬ 
ducive to the convenience and comfort of mankind, have had a 
very early origin. Some of them may be considered as almost 
coeval with the human race; and others have sprung U p at 



r 



? . 





a 


JD ft A W I N G . 





























THE ARTS. 


r>r 

different periods, and in various nations so remote, that the history 
ot their rise, and of their progress for many ages, is involved in 
an obscurity which precludes any satisfactory investigation. The 
want of food, raiment, and habitations, would naturally suggest a 
variety of inventions; and when the first and scanty demands of 
necessity were satisfied, mankind would proceed by further dis¬ 
coveries to improve the ordinary means of supply, and at length 
to ameliorate and embellish the condition which providence had 
assigned them. But for a long time their real exigencies would 
be few, and their view r s and wishes very limited ; and of course 
their progress in improvement would be proportionally slow and 
tedious. 

In a more advanced state of society, their necessities and 
desires would be multiplied, and they would devise new methods 
of supplying and gratifying them ; so that the arts they had 
already invented would be improved, and new ones would be 
discovered. At last, as a change of circumstances occurred, or 
some accident suggested the hint or afforded opportunity, they 
w r ould proceed from the invention of the necessary and mechanical 
arts to those that contributed to elegance and ornament, as well 
as superior accommodation. As to the inventions and discoveries 
of the early ages, nothing certain is known. Those arts that 
may be referred to the class of such as are most necessary and 
useful, were the productions of periods when men had little ac¬ 
quaintance with letters, and when they possessed no certain mode of 
transmitting an account of them to succeeding generations. The 
records of tradition are obscure, doubtful, or fabulous ; and other 
modes of conveyance are subject to corruptions and mutilations 
in the lapse of many ages. To this purpose, it may be alleged, 
that many passages in the w^orks of Pliny, who appears to have 
been industrious in collecting whatever he thought to be useful 
or curious, and to have been as desirous of communicating know¬ 
ledge as he was industrious in acquiring it, have suffered in 
this way to such a degree, that some of them have not been 
satisfactorily illustrated even by the best commentators. 

It is universally allowed, however, that the arts had their rise in 
the East, and that they were conveyed from thence to the Greeks, 
and from them to the Romans. The Romans, indeed, seem to 
have been chiefly indebted to the Greeks, by whom they were 
excelled in point of invention. The Romans acknowledged this 
superiority, for they sent their youth to Greece in order to finish 
their education; and from this circumstance we may infer, 
that they considered that countr) as the seat of the arts and 
sciences, and as a school where genius would be excited by the 

4 K 


(ns 


Y W V s G MANS COM PA N i G*?T. 

most finished models, and the taste corrected and formed. Pliny 
and other writers have, nevertheless, given hints which lead us to 
conclude, that the Romans possessed a more extensive acquaintance 
with the arts, than the moderns are perhaps willing to allow, and 
that some inventions regarded as new, may be only old ones 
revived, and again applied to practice. When Rome, abandoned 
to luxury and vice, became an easy prey to those hordes of bar¬ 
barians who overspread the empire, her arts shared in the general 
wreck, and were either entirely lost, or for a considerable time 
forgotten. The deplorable state of ignorance in which Europe 
was afterwards plunged during several centuries retarded their 
revival; and it was not till a late period, when favoured and 
protected by a few men of superior genius, that they began again 
to be cultivated. 

It cannot, however, be denied, that several important discoveries, 
altogether unknown to the ancients, which must have had consi¬ 
derable influence on the general state of society, were made in ages 
which can hardly be exempted from the appellation of barbarous. 
Of this kind were the invention of paper, painting in oil, the 
mariner’s compass, gunpowder, printing, and engraving on copper. 
After the invention of the compass and printing, two grand sources 
were opened for the improvement of science. As navigation was 
extended, new objects were discovered to awaken the curiositv, 
and excite the attention of the learned; and the ready means of 
diffusing knowledge, afforded by the press, enabled the ingenious 
to make them publicly known. Ignorance and superstition, the 
formidable enemies of philosophy in every age, began to lose 
some of that power which they had usurped; and different states, 
forgetting their former blind policy, adopted improvements, which 
their prejudices before condemned. 

In countries, however, where civil and ecclesiastical tyranny 
prevailed, the progress of the useful and elegant arts was^ slow', 
and struggled with many difficulties. Particular events, indeed, 
have occurred in all ages and nations, which have roused the 
exertions of genius, and furnished occasion for making important 
and useful discoveries. The history of Greece and Rome, and 
even of modern Europe, will afford many obvious facts that seem 
to confirm and illustrate this observation. 

Arts have been divided into liberal and mechanical. 

Liberal or polite arts, are those that are noble and ingenious, 
or which are worthy of being cultivated without any immediate 
regard to the lucre arising from them. They are such as depend 
more on the labour of the mind than on that of the hand ; or, that 
consist more in speculation than operation, and have a greater 


I'lIE ARTS. 


619 


regard to amusement and curiosity than necessity. . They may 
be said indeed to partake of the character of science, as much 
as art. Such are poetry, music, drawing, painting, the military 
art, architecture, navigation, &c. 

Mechanical arts, are those wherein the hand and body are more 
concerned than the mind, and which are chiefly cultivated for the 
sake of the profit attending them. Of which kind are most of 
those which furnish us with the necessaries of life, and are popu¬ 
larly know by the name of trades and manufactures. Such are 
weaving, turnery, brewing, masonry, clock-making, carpentry, 
joinery, printing, &c. 

The mechanical arts in general can only be learned by practice, 
but there are some of the liberal arts respecting which some ob¬ 
servations may be useful. From the numerous branches of the 
liberal arts to which allusion has been made, we select the fol¬ 
lowing as specimens. 

Section I.— Drawing and Perspective. 

Drawing in its general sense is the accurate representation and 
just symmetry of forms and proportions. This term is usually 
applied to the lighter sketches in pencil, chalk, Indian ink, or water¬ 
colours ; the more permanent works of this nature in oil, crayons, 
&c. are usually ranked under the designation of paintings, 
Drawing may justly be considered as the basis of painting; for 
it is but labour lost, when the painter endeavours to disguise by 
ingenious artifices of colour, the defects of forms which are fun¬ 
damentally incorrect and incoherent. 

There is scarcely a style of modern draAving or colouring, which 
Avas not known to the Greeks; Avho united to these exquisite 
accomplishments all the collateral ramifications of embroidery, 
tapestry, brocading, damask Avork, and every species of mosaic, 
'which, according to Pliny, Avho has compiled a history of the arts, 
had a different denomination assigned to each. 

From Avhom the Greeks derived their first knowledge of de¬ 
signing, Ave know not. According to the Roman annalist above 
alluded to, Telephanes of Sicyon, and Ardices of Corinth, 
equally contended for the honour; but the species of design he 
first adverts to, an invention, indeed, prior to the era that can be 
ascribed to these artists, is the rude method of tracing the mere 
outline of a shadoAv when projected upon a wall, a method which 
still exists among ourselves. 

This species of drawing, and probably painting, strictly so 
called, must have been of very early origin indeed. Embroidery 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


m 

and tapestry, in which colours were introduced, we know to have 
been of high antiquity, even among the Jews and Babylonians; 
but both these arts‘presuppose the existence of outlines, or line 
drawings, for the artists necessarily worked from a pattern. 

To the mere outline, the Corinthian or Sicyonian artist, according 
to Pliny, added strikes to the interior, a style which is still retained, 
whenever the quill or the crayon is employed. Our historian then 
advances to a second epoch, regarding the mere outline with 
internal strokes as one and the smae. The second epoch of 
Pliny comprises the use of a single colour alone, and its style 
was in consequence denominated by the Greeks, Monochromaton, 
and is still retained in modern times under the appellation of 
cameo. This seems to have been a great improvement upon 
the style of stroke, or linear drawing; which must have wanted 
relief, and been incapable of exhibiting the gradual softness, 
recession, and rotundity, which are everywhere to be met with in 
nature. This alone is to be obtained, in any high degree, by the 
introduction of colour. It is to the harmonious combination of 
tints apparently opposite in which the black alone maintains the 
supremacy, that the Italians have given the name of chiaro-scuro, 
or clear obscure. From this advantage gained to the art, it is easy 
to trace its ascent to the life and harmony of colouring, properly 
so called—to the eras of Pansenus, Polygnotus, and Zeuxis— 
to the exquisite paintings of the Poecile—and the meridian age 
of Apelles, who, in the language of Cicero, consummated this 
noble invention. 

Amidst many other proofs of the ingenuity of the ancients 
which are totally lost to us, is to be enumerated their mode of 
encaustic painting, as well in wax as on ivory. Of the inventors 
of these very curious arts we know nothing. The style of painting 
in wax was in common use at least as early as the age of Anacreon, 
who, as the friend of Polycrates of Samos, must have flourished 
upwards of five hundred years anterior to the Christian era. 

Amongst the painters of antiquity, Apelles is recorded as the 
racist eminent for the beauty of his drawing. Since the revival 
of the arts in Italy, Michael Angelo appears the most learned 
draughtsman, Raffaelle the most correct and graceful. The Roman 
and Florentine schools have excelled all others in this fundamental 
art of painting. Of the former, Raffaelle, Giulio Romano, Polydore, 
and their scholars ; of the latter, M. Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci! 
and Andria del Sarto, have been the most excellent. In the 
Bolognese school Annibal Caracci is particularly distinguished. 
In the French school, Poussin, Le Sueur, and Le Brun; in our 
own, Mortimer, Barry, and West, have been much celebrated. 


THE AliTS. 


62 i 


The study of this art has at all times been held in high esti¬ 
mation by all polished nations, not only on account of the de¬ 
lightful amusement it is capable of affording, but from the superior 
consideration of its influence on the intellect and judgment, by 
forming the eye, and with it the mind, to habitual discriminations 
of dimension, regularity, proportion, and order. There is on 
record, a saying of Thomas, earl of Arundel, lord marshal of 
England, “ that one who could not draw a little would never 
make an honest man.” 

Having briefly traced the history of this art, we proceed to 
give a few plain simple rules which may be useful in practice. 

And first as to the materials most requisite for the young 
draughtsman, the following are the principal. 

Drawing boards for fixing the paper upon, so that it may not 
shift, and also for straining it, to prevent the colours, when laid 
wet upon the paper, from causing it to swell up, so as to be 
uneven. The simplest sort is made of deal-board, framed square, 
with a strong piece across each end, to prevent warping. 

The best kind of drawing boards, however, are made with a 
frame, and a movable panel, upon which the paper is simply 
put wet, and then forced into the frame, where it is confined by 
wedges at the back. 

Parallel rulers are for drawing parallel lines very readily; they 
are made of two pieces of ebony fastened together by brass bars, 
so as always to move parallel to each other. They may be bought of 
different kinds and prices, at the mathematical instrument makers. 

T squares are rulers made in the form of the letter T, which 
are used with the drawing-boards; the short end, called the stock, 
being applied to the edge of the board, so as to slide forwards 
and backwards, while the long part, called the blade, is used for 
drawing lines by. These are more convenient than parallel rulers, 
when a drawing board is used, as by them you draw lines at right 
angles to each other at once, without using the compasses. 

Dividing-compasses are instruments of brass and steel, for 
dividing lines, and laying down measures from scales, &c. They 
are generally sold in cases, containing also a steel pen, for drawing 
lines cleaner than can be done by a common pen ; and points 
with a black-lead pencil, for putting into the compasses, when 
circles are to be described. 

Black-lead pencils are of various degrees of hardness, and are 
termed— 

F, fine. 

H, hard. 

H B, hard and black. 


B, black. 

B B, double black. 


622 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


The best were formerly made by Brookman and Langdon, but 
other makers have produced them latterly of excellent quality. 

Indian rubber, or elastic gum, as it is also called, is a substance 
very much like leather, which has the curious and useful property 
of erasing or defacing lines, drawn with black-lead; it is therefore 
much used for this purpose. 

Indian ink comes from China, where it is used for common 
writing, which is performed with a brush instead of a pen. It is 
a solid substance, of a brownish black colour, and the composition 
1S R ? 1 /? own ’ £ ut 1S conjectured to be the gall of a species of 
cuttle-fish. When ground up with water upon a clean tile or 
earthenware p ate, it may be made either lighter or darker, as 
required, by adding to it more or less water. The best Indian 
mk is always stamped with Chinese characters. 

Hair-pencils are made of camel’s hair, put into a goose or 
swan s quill. To choose these, moisten them a little, and if thev 
come to a point without splitting, they are good ; if they do not, 
they are not fit for drawing with. 

. Charcoal is used for slightly sketching the outlines of figures, 
m order to get the proportions, previous to making a drawing in 
chalk. I he best charcoal for this purpose is that of the willow ; 
it is cut into slips, and the strokes made with it, may be easily 
rubbed out with a feather of a goose’s or duck’s wing. 

lack chalk is a fossil substance, resembling slaty coal, which 
is cut into s ips for drawing It is generally used in an instrument 
called a port-crayon, which is made either of steel or brass. U is 
much employed for drawing figures, and is the best substance for 
this purpose, in making drawings from plaster, or after the life. 

Drawing paper made without any wire-marks, called wove 
paper, k the best for this purpose. It is made of various sizes 
and thicknesses, as Royal, Imperial, &c.; the thickness and quality 
is generally proportionate to the size. ^ 3 

Middle tint paper, is of a brownish or of a grey colour, which is 
Vised for drawing upon with black and white chalk. Being of a 
dark colour, the strokes of the white chalk are distinctly seen ; 
and it saves a great deal of time in making drawings, as the tint 
of the paper answers for the half-shadow, so that all that is neces¬ 
sary to be done is to lay in the dark shadows and the lights. 


LANDSCAPES. 


Under this head may be included a great variety of natural 
objects and m infinitely diversified combinations am/groupings • 
as buildings, rocks, trees, &c. Landscapes may be "considered 


THE ARTS. 


623 


m two ways; either as faithful delineations or portraits of places, 
which perhaps may be more properly called topographical land¬ 
scapes ; or as productions of the imagination or fancy, in which 
the artist has selected, like the ancient Greek sculptors, the 
beauties of various parts, and combined them into a perfect whole. 

In drawing topographical representations, the strictest attention 
should be paid to truth in those objects which form the subject 
of the picture. In mountainous countries, the knowledge of the 
geologist, and among buildings the skill of the architect and 
antiquarian, will be found useful to the artist. His business is 
to detail facts ; and in drawing from nature, his taste as an artist 
should carry him no farther than to choose the point of view 
most proper for giving an impressive and characteristic repre¬ 
sentation of his object. After the sketch or study is made from 
nature, it is the business of the artist to compose it into a picture ; 
or to invent such a sky, foreground, and figures, as shall combine 
together with the principal object to complete the character, and 
to form the whole. 

With regard to the poetical artist, almost every one has his 
peculiar ideas of perfection in the grand style of landscapes ; 
and as few have attempted it, and still fewer succeeded, it is dif¬ 
ficult to point out any productions that may serve as models. 
The works of Poussin, Caracci, Titian, and others of the Italian 
school, will furnish the student with many useful hints ; but he 
must take care that in studying them, he do not become an 
imitator and mannerist, and lose sight of nature, the contem¬ 
plation of which alone will give a stamp of originality to his 
compositions. 

In pursuing the practice of landscape drawing, it has been 
recommended to the learner to begin by copying some sketch 
which contains only one or two simple objects, as an old wall, 
stone cross, &c.; afterwards to proceed by degrees to more 
extensive combinations. In this early state, the pupil will only 
require black-lead pencils, drawing paper, and Indian rubber, but 
afterwards other materials will be needful. 

The first thing to be learned is to draw a correct outline, which 
must be completed before the drawing is put into shade. Most 
persons who draw for the first time, make continued hard lines; 
the consequence of this is, that they can never draw a perpen¬ 
dicular or horizontal line without the aid of a ruler, which must 
never be used in picturesque drawing. Nor will it be required, 
if the following simple rule is attended to: place one dot imme¬ 
diately above another, at any distance you please, and draw a 
number of small dots or very short lines from one to the other; 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


G21 

practise lines of this kind on waste paper, till you can make a 
‘ perpendicular line with tolerable certainty. 

You may then proceed with all the outline of the sketch in the 
same manner, till the whole is completed, and ready to be put in 
the shade. It is this which gives an appearance of substance, dis¬ 
tance, and distinction, to every object, whether animate or inanimate. 
The shades may be laid on either with black lead, chalk, or Indian 
ink, but the great improvements and variety in the manufacture 
of the black-lead pencil, have in a considerable degree superseded 
the use of chalk and Indian ink, in landscape drawing. 

Specimens of perpendicular shades are shown in plate drawing, 
fig. 1 ; of diagonal shades in fig. 2 ; and cross-shading, fig. 3. In 
distributing the light and shade, it must first be ascertained 
from what point, and in what direction, the light fills upon the 
objects which the learner is delineating, that all the lights and 
shades may be placed in that direction through the whole piece. 
If the light falls sideways on the picture, he must make that side 
which is opposite to it lightest, and that side which is farthest from 
it darkest. Observe also, that a strong light requires a strong 
shade, a fainter light a fainter shade ; and that a balance must be 
preserved through the piece between the light and shade. It 
should be remarked also, that objects should appear more or less 
confused or clear, according to their situations. Those that are 
very distant, weak, faint, and confused; those that are near on 
the foreground, clear, strong, and accurately finished. Fig. 4, is 
an example of an elementary sketch. 

As the forms of the different objects to be represented in 
landscapes vary very much from each other, it is needful also to 
vary the kind of outline. In sketching rocks and hills, their 
forms, proportions, and irregularities, should be carefully imitated, 
and nicely distinguished ; but in sketching a tree, where it is 
impossible that a mere outline.should convey the exact form of 
its various minute parts, such a method should be adopted as 
appears best calculated to express its general appearance. Care 
should be taken in trees on the foreground to adapt the style of 
drawing to the nature of their foliage, whether oak, ash, &c 
Fig. 5, represents a trunk of a tree ; fig. 6, a branch ; and figs. 

7 and 8, different kinds of foliage. 

The foliage of trees is made of irregular curved lines, formed 
into semicircles, angles, or points, according to the character of 
the tree; and as these forms present themselves to the eye in 
various directions, it is necessary that you should acquire great 
facility of expressing them, which ever way they may appear. 

. outline of the architectural parts of a subject should be 



























P E Si S P E C T 1 V E . 




























































































TIIK ARTS. 


625 


drawn with a neat even stroke; and where any set of objects, 
such as doors and windows, fig. 4, is to be taken, faint lines 
should be drawn, in a proper degree of inclination from the top 
and bottom, and then divided into equal portions for the breadths, 
or else there is danger of great irregularity. Figs. 9 and 10 
represent some of the most easy combinations in landscape 
drawing. 

The study of the human figure in drawing, has justly been 
considered as ranking first in importance, and has often been 
attempted first in order of time. But in an elementary work 
like the present, it is impossible to give any correct idea of this 
style of drawing. Animals are, however, often introduced in 
drawing, therefore in fig. 11 is shown a specimen of the head of 
a horse. 

It is impossible to proceed far in landscape drawing without 
some knowledge of the elements of perspective ; the following- 
outline of this important part of drawing may be useful. 


PERSPECTIVE. 


Perspective is the art of drawing the picture, or representation 
of any visible object on a plane surface, in such a manner as it 
would appear on some transparent surface, interposed between an 
object and the eye of an observer. 

All correct perspective has geometry for its foundation, and 
consequently truth for its support. It consists in determining 
and fixing the geometric situation of points in a picture, which 
points connected, produce lines, and lines (straight and curvilineal) 
constitute the first principles of a picture, the grand outline and 
structure which the painter is to dress with light and shade. 
Hence it is perceivable that the mathematician directs the outlines, 
but does not finish the piece; and on the other hand, the painter 
cannot make a sure beginning without the mathematician's rules. 

We do not mean to say that these rules are to be applied to 
all the smaller hollows and prominences of objects, for these, as 
well as some other of the minutiae of art, are to be determined 
by the eye, and drawn by a steady hand. A landscape painter 
may study nature in the inmost recesses of a forest, and there 
store his mind with models of trees and foliage, and by such means 
become qualified to make a random picture. But if he would go 
farther, and represent a true portraiture of anavenueof these subjects, 
lie must study the perspective diminution of the most remote parts 
thereof, as well as their relative positions, or his proposed picture 
will become an anamorphosis. He may give a tolerably correct 

4 L 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


6 C J6 

view of one side of a building, but he can do no more; if he 
would give the representation of more than one side, he must 
have recourse to the principles of perspective. 

The practical rules of perspective are in great measure applied 
to the delineation of architectural bodies, and other right lined 
figures; and a knowledge of the general laws of this science is 
sure to inform the judgment of the manner in which lines should 
run, whereto they should tend, and where terminate, so as to 
produce the desired effect. 

All architectural drawings may be exhibited in two wavs, either 
as elevations or in perspective. The former are used by archi¬ 
tects as modes or plans for their work, and in these the rules of 
perspective are not attended to. This will be made more evident 
by a reference to Plate Perspective, figs. 1, 2. In drawing an 
elevation of a building, the artist is supposed to stand directly in 
front of it, in which position neither of the sides can be seen ; 
this will be understood by looking at fig. 1, which is an elevation; 
but by moving towards the end of the house, the front and one 
side is seen, as in fig. 2, in which the same building is exhibited 
in perspective. 

In every perspective drawing there are several points to which 
the learner must pay particular attention ; as the base line, the 
horizontal line, the point of sight, and the point of distance. 

The base line is the line which bounds the bottom of the 
picture, and in landscape drawing is often termed the terrestrial, 
or ground line. The horizontal line is always parallel, or even 
with the base line ; and indicates in what part the representation 
of the natural horizon should appear. If you stand on the sea¬ 
shore looking towards the ocean, in the extreme distance, the sky 
and water appear to meet together, and the line formed by the 
termination of the view of the water is called the horizen. You 
will find that this line is always exactly the same height as your 
eye; this you can prove by holding a stick some distance from 
you, even with your eye, and it will completely hide the horizon 
from your view. Nor does it make any difference if you are 
the ground, or standing on an eminence, the horizon 
will of course be higher or lower, but in all cases it will be even 
with your eye. 

In fig. 3, the horizontal line is the height of the eye ; ships 
and boats of various descriptions are seen ; but even the sails of 
most of them appear below the horizon, and the sky forms but a 
small part of the picture. In fig. 4, the horizon is still even with 
the eje ; but it will be seen that this view is more pleasing than 
the former one, as the space between the horizon and the base 


fHE ARTS. 


627 


line occupies a smaller part of the picture. This example, there¬ 
fore, is much more worthy of imitation. The same observations 
apply to an inland horizon; the only reason for selecting marine 
subjects for these examples* is, that the plane or surface of the 
sea is more regular than that of a landscape, and the horizon 
consequently unobscured by objects rising above it. 

The point of sight is the point or spot directly opposite to the 
eve, when looking at any object; and as the horizontal line is 
always even with the eye, of course the point of sight is in the 
horizontal line. In fig. 5 a number of upright poles are seen to 
the left hand ; they are all standing on the same plane, and at an 
equal distance from each other. Common observation will con¬ 
vince you that the farther any object is from the eye, the smaller 
it appears, and thus the poles in the drawing gradually 
lessen as they recede from the view. The reason is, that all the 
lines in the picture terminate in the point of sight, and therefore 
lines drawn from the top and bottom of the first pole to the point 
of sight in the horizon, will give the true height in perspective of 
the whole of them. All lines below the horizou, terminating in the 
point of sight, must incline upwards, and those above the horizon 
downwards. The reason why all objects appear smaller as they 
recede from the eye, is, because all objects appear large or small 
according to the angle at which they are seen. This may be un¬ 
derstood by looking at fig. 5 ; here the line formed by the rays 
from the top and bottom of the poles meet in the eye, and would, if 
carried out, form certain angles, appearing smaller the nearer they 
approach it. In fig. 6 is a cottage with a church on a hill; they 
are introduced in order to show that the lines of both terminate in 
the same point of sight. 

Having briefly described the horizontal line and the point of 
sight, we now proceed to the point of distance. This point is 
the place where the spectator stands to take the view, and of course 
can never be seen in the picture. You must recollect that the eye 
cannot conveniently take in more rays than are included in a 
right angle; and for this reason, that the pupil being in the centre 
of the eye, does not well admit more than a quadrant of a circle, 
so that whatever rays exceed that portion, if seen at all, only pro¬ 
duce a dim confused effect. All that comes within the lines formed 
by the quadrant may be seen distinctly, but if you wished to take 
in a greater extent of country you could not do it from the same 
point of distance without turning the head, and thus having another 
point of sight, which would throw your whole drawing into con¬ 
fusion ; but if you were to stand at a greater distance, the angle 
would be larger, and would take in more of the view; and the 


62 S 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


point would in this case be a greater distance from the point of 
sight. 

In fig. 6, d is the base line, and we shall try to put a square 
in perspective, one side of which, cc, is measured on the base line. 
To effect this, we draw lines from cc to the point of sight a ; and 
to determine how large the square would appear in perspective from 
cc, dotted lines are made to b b , the points of distance; the points 
where they intersect the lines drawn to the point of sight, will give 
the true size of the other three sides of the square. 

Accidental points are so called, because they are not drawn to 
the point of sight, or to the point of distance, but appear acciden¬ 
tally on the horizon, according to the situation of the object. 

Fig. 7 shows the side or oblique view of the same object. In 
this position, it presents two sides to the view ; and the point of 
sight a , instead of appearing in the middle of the horizon, as was 
the case in the front view, must be placed nearer the side of the 
picture. The real point of sight, you must recollect, is still in the 
centre of the horizontal line, but the position of the eye being 
greatly on one side of the object, the horizon is so much extended, 
that the whole of it cannot be given on the paper, and for the same 
reason, only one point of distance, b , can be introduced. This 
figure is not lettered, because the process of putting this square in 
perspective is the same as in the preceding example. 

Fig 8 shows a room in perspective, with the lines running on 
all sides to one point, which is the point of sight. 

In order to aid the artist in giving the different objects their 
proper size and situations, it is well to form, as soon as pos¬ 
sible, the height of the horizontal line, and to adapt the height of 
any object either above or below it, according to the distance re¬ 
quired from it, compared with its own breadth, or that of any other 
object which may have been already marked out. Having in this 
manner marked the places of the different objects, he may proceed 
to sketch their forms, making sure of the larger objects before he 
proceeds to the smaller ones. Particular attention should be paid 
by the landscape painter to the study of architecture, as the style 
of his buildings will greatly enrich his pictures. The style of his 
trees is of still greater importance; the beauty and variety of their 
foliage afford the artist an opportunity of displaying his taste and 
correctness, and at the same time of adding greatly to the interest 
and expression of the piece. 


SHADING. 

In shading with black lead or chalk, no particular rule can be 
given for arranging the lines ; this must be learned by copying 


THE ARTS. 


from good drawings, and carefully marking the practice of the best 
masters. Yet it maybe remarked in general, that, if an object be 
perpendicular, the lines should be so too, only crossing them oc¬ 
casionally for the sake of variety and richness. In any round 
object, such as a tower, the lines should be curved in proportion 
to its size; and if an object be inclined, the lines should be made 
to follow that inclination. In shading a sky or hills, where a broad, 
smooth tint is required, the shades may be done by the motion of 
the whole hand and wrist; but in buildings and other objects where 
exactness is required, no more should be attempted than can be 
done by the movement of the fingers and thumb with the wrist 
fixed steadily on the paper. 

Sepia is now much more used than Indian-ink, as it makes much 
more pleasing drawings, and produces a warmer tint. The methods 
of using these colours are nearly the same. The following gene¬ 
ral instructions for shading with Indian ink any simple sketch of 
landscape scenery will be found useful. The paper being properly 
strained on a board, and having provided yourself with a cake of 
Indian ink, and a set of brushes or camel-hair pencils, of different 
sizes, a white plate and a cup of cold soft water, commence by 
damping your paper with the largest brush full of water ; then dip 
one of your brushes in water, and let a few drops fall from it upon 
one side of the plate, on which rub up your Indian ink, taking 
care not to leave it too wet. Having so done, take a large brush, 
and dip it into the Indian ink, and on another part of the plate 
mix it with water till it becomes sufficiently pale to form the first 
tint. Then with the same brush, beginning at the left hand corner 
at the top of the drawing, put the whole in this shade, with the 
exception of any strong light which it may be needful to retain. 
You will at first find it difficult to form a broad flat tint, as you 
will be fearful of using too much colour; but you must always 
keep the brush full, even if you are merely at the end of the space 
you wish to cover, otherwise the edge of the tint will dry before 
you get more in your brush, and the sky will be spoiled with lines 
running across it. Having laid on the first tint, mix the second 
tint on the plate a little darker; with this tint form the trees, the 
windows and doors of buildings, and in fact, every part that re¬ 
quires a second shade. When this is quite dry, put in a stronger 
shadow with the third tint. You have now the whole of the 
drawing in light, shade, and middle tints, and you may finish with 
a fourth tint much darker, working with rather a smaller brush, 
with which you may form the broken parts of thatch, &c, the daik 
parts of trees, rushes, &c. 

As the shading with sepia produces a more clear and transparent 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


630 

effect than Indian ink, the following instructions are given, which 
will enable the learner to shade a marine view, or any other drawing 
of a similar kind, with that colour. 

After you have drawn the outline of the subject, and sketched 
lightly the form of the large clouds that float on the horizon, pro¬ 
ceed as before to form the first tint. With the large brush begin 
at the top and go over all that part of the sky that requires a flat 
tint; then take another brush with a little water only, and wash 
the edges towards the rolling clouds, till it leaves no colour on the 
paper; this is called softening, and will prevent the hard wiry 
appearance which your early attempt at skies will undoubtedly 
have, unless treated in this way. You will next mix a tint a shade 
darker than the first; and with this form the clouds, softening 
them off towards the edge of that part of the sky formed before ; 
this will leave the strong light at the edges, but with a soft and 
aeiial effect, as though the clouds melted into each other; while 
the sky is drying you can go over the water, with the first and 
second tints, without touching the sails of the vessels, as the colour 
would run into and injure the sky. When the tints previously 
laid on are dry, take a smaller brush, and form the masts of the 
large vessels; put the boats and shipping at a distance in the 
first and second shade. You may now make a transparent cloud 
over the flat tinte first applied, and the sky is finished : the hulk 
of the larger vessels, the masts, rigging, &c. with boats, or other 
objects in the foreground, must be finished up with darker colour, 
and the last touches, to give effect, as dark as they can be made. 

COLOURING. 

Before the learner commences coloured drawings, it is necessary 
to observe that yellow, blue, and red, are the three primitive colours*; 
and if these could be obtained in perfection, we should be enabled' 
by combining them, to form every tint that is required. From the 
three primitive or simple colours are formed four compounds : first, 
blue and yellow, which produces green ; secondly, yellow and red’ 
which forms orange; thirdly, red and blue, which forms purple; 
fourthly, the mixture of the three primitive colours forms a grev 
J t will be obvious, from this short explanation of the theory of 
colours, that by the mixture of the tints formed by the different 
compounds, an endless variety of shades may be produced. This 
accounts for the great number of different colours which mav be 
purchased, many of which are called after the names of the artist 
who myented them, and are eagerly sought after by persons who 
are endeayounng to produce brilliant drawings without a previ¬ 
ous knowledge of light and shade. All persons who commence 


THE ARTS. 


63 1 


colouring may be assured, that a judicious selection of a few colours 
will aid them more than the possession of all the fanciful tints 
with which expensive boxes of colours are loaded. 

A box which contains the twelve following colours, will produce 
every tint required in the most finished drawing. 

1. Yellow Ochre. 5. Vermilion. 9. Sepia. 

2. Gamboge. 6. Lake. 10. Vandyke Brown. 

3. Italian Pink. 7. Venetian Red. 11. Indigo. 

4. Raw Umber. 8. Burnt Sienna. 12. Prussian Blue. 

To these colours may be added a few colours which will some¬ 
times be found useful, and with the names and qualities of which 
it is proper that you should be acquainted. Ultramarine is the 
finest and most beautiful blue that can be produced, and is a pre¬ 
paration of calcined lapis lazuli. This colour is too expensive to 
be introduced into a box of colours for a learner, as a very small 
cake amounts to a guinea; nor is this much to be regretted, as it 
is very difficult to use, and is not easily levigated on the palette. 
It is chiefly used by miniature and enamel painters, and is to them 
a most invaluable colour, as it will stand well, retaining its bril¬ 
liancy for centuries. Carmine is a very bright rose-colour, more 
brilliant than lake : this colour is expensive, and is chiefly used in 
fruit and flower pieces. Gallstone is a bright yellow, but very 
little superior to gamboge, and more expensive. The great dis¬ 
advantage of this colour is its liability to fade ; it is very transpa¬ 
rent, and is sometimes used to lay over greens, which having too 
cold a tone of colour require warmth. King's yellow is a useful 
opaque colour; it is a pure orpiment, or arsenic coloured with 
sulphur, and must therefore be used with care by those who put 
their brush in their mouths. Indian red is nearly the colour of 
Venetian red; but not so generally useful, as its weight causes it 
to sink in water, and renders the tints formed with it muddy. 

The above colours may be combined in various ways, so as to 
produce all the varieties needful. The perfect use of them can 
only be acquired by great practice, and in the use of the best pos¬ 
sible copies. 

Section II.— Painting in Glass. 

The ancient painting in glass was very simple : it consisted in 
the mere arrangement of pieces of glass of different colours in 
some sort of symmetry, and constituted what is now called 
Mosaic work. In process of time they came to attempt more 
regular designs, and also to represent figures heightened with all 


632 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

their shades: yet they proceeded no farther than the contours of 
the figures in black with water-colours, and etching the draperies 
after the same manner on glasses of the colour of the object they 
designed to paint. For the carnation they used glass of a bright 
red colour; and upon this they drew the principal lineaments of 
the face, &c. with black. At length, the taste for this sort of 
painting improving considerably, and the art being found appli¬ 
cable to the adorning of churches, palaces, &c., they found out 
means of incorporating the colours in the glass itself, by heating 
them in a fire to a proper degree, having first laid on the colours. 

A French painter at Marseilles is said to have given the first 
notion of this improvement, upon going to Rome, under the 
pontificate of Julius II.; but Albert Durer, and Lucas of Leyden, 
were the first that carried it to any height. 

The colours used in painting or staining of glass are very dif¬ 
ferent from those used in painting either in water or oil colours. 
For black, take scales of iron, one ounce ; scales of copper, one 
ounce ; jet, half an ounce ; reduce them to powder, and mix 
them. For blue, take powder of blue, one pound; nitre, half a 
pound ; mix them, and grind them well together. For carnation, 
take red chalk, eight ounces; iron scales, and litharge of silver, 
of each two ounces; gum-arabic, half an ounce; dissolve in 
water, grind altogether for half an hour as stiff as you can ; then 
put it in a glass and stir it well, and let it stand to settle fourteen 
days. For green, take red lead, one pound ; scales of copper, one 
pound ; and flint, five pounds; divide them into three parts, and add 
to them as much nitre; put them into a crucible, and melt them 
with a strong fire, and when it is cold, powder it, and grind it on 
*i porphyry, F or gold colour, take silver an ounce ; antimony, 
half an ounce : melt them in a crucible, then pound the mass to 
powder, and grind it on a copper plate ; add to it yellow ochre, 
or brick dust calcined again, fifteen ounces ; and grind them well 
together with water. For purple, take minium, one pound ; brown 
stone, one pound; white flint, five pounds ; divide them into 
three parts, and add to them as much nitre as one of the 
parts; calcine, melt, and grind it as you did the green. For 
red, take jet, four ounces; litharge of silver, two ounces; red 
chalk, one ounce ; powder them fine, and mix them. F’or white, 
take jet, two parts; white flint, ground on a glass very fine, one 
paid ; mix them. For yellow, take Spanish brown, ten parts; 
leaf silver, one part; antimony, half a part; put all into a 
crucible, and calcine them well. 

In all the windows of ancient churches, &c., there are to be 
seen the most beautiful and vivid colours imaginable, which far 


THE ARTS. 


CSS 


exceed any of tliose used by the moderns, not so much because 
the secret of making tliose colours is entirely lost, as that the 
moderns will not go to the charge of them, nor be at the neces¬ 
sary pains, by reason that this sort of painting is not now so 
much in esteem as formerly. Those beautiful works, which were 
made in the glass houses, were of two kinds. 

In some, the colour was diffused through the whole substance 
of the glass. In others, which were far the most common, the 
colour was only on one side, scarce penetrating within the substance 
above one-third of a line ; though this was more or less according 
to the nature of the colour, the yellow being always found to enter 
the deepest. These last, though not so strong and beautiful as 
the former, were of more advantage to the workmen, by reason 
that on the same glass, though already coloured, they could show 
other kinds of colours where there was occasion to embroider 
draperies, enrich them with foliage, or represent other ornaments 
of gold, silver, &c. 

In order to this, they made use of emery, grinding or wearing 
down the surface of the glass till such time, as they were got 
through the colour to the clear glass. This done, they applied 
the proper colours on the other side of the glass. By these means, 
the new colours were hindered from running and mixing with the 
former, when they exposed the glasses to the fire, as will appear 
hereafter. When, indeed, the ornaments were to appear white, 
the glass was only bared of its colour with emery, without tinging 
the place with any colour at all ; and this was the manner by 
which they wrought their lights and heightenings on all kinds of 
colour. 

The first thing to be done in order to paint or stain glass in 
the modern way, is to design, and even colour the whole subject 
on paper. Then they choose such pieces of glass as are clear, 
even, and smooth, and proper to -receive the several parts ; and 
proceed to distribute the design itself, or the paper it is drawn 
on, into pieces suitable to those of the glass, always taking care 
that the glasses may join in the contours of the figures, and the 
folds of the draperies ; that the carnations and other finer parts 
may not be impaired by the lead with which the pieces are to be 
joined together. The distribution being made, they mark all the 
glasses as well as papers, that they may be known again ; which 
done, applying every part of the design upon the glass intended 
for it, they copy or transfer the design upon this glass with the 
black colour diluted in gum-water, by tracing and following all 
the lines and strokes which appear through the glass with the point 
of a pencil. 

4 M 


634 > VOUNG man's companion. 

As to the other colours above mentioned, they are used with 
gum-water, much as in painting in miniature ; taking care to 
apply them lightly, for fear of effacing the outlines of the design ; 
or even for the greater security, to apply them on the other side; 
especially yellow, which is very pernicious to the other colours, 
by blending therewith. And here too, as in pieces of black and 
white, particular regard must always be had not to lay colour on 
colour, or put on a new lay, till such time as the former is well 
dried. 

When the painting of the pieces is finished, they are carried to 
the furnace to anneal or bake the colours. 

Having often been delighted with the grand effect produced by 
the windows of stained glass in old churches and monasteries, we 
have regretted that such fine and durable colouring should, in so 
many cases, have been prostituted upon wretched designs, inferior 
to the productions of our sign-post daubers. We have wished that 
some mode could be devised of copying and multiplying pictures 
upon glass—some mechanical mode, which should require the aid 
of the artist in the first instance only, and leave all the subsequent 
operations to be performed by inferior hands, as in the case of 
copper-plate printing. Portraits, at least, on a single piece of 
glass, which should perpetuate the features of great men and beau¬ 
tiful women, secure from that decay of colour and of canvas which 
has already, begun to obliterate the finest paintings of the greatest 
artists whom the world has ever produced, might possibly be pro¬ 
duced in the following way. 

Suppose, after the outline of a likeness is drawn, that blocks were 
cut from it after the same manner as for calicoes or paper-hangings, 
only with superior nicety, and in greater number for the purpose 
of multiplying and better blending the tints. 

Enamellers must determine what shall be the proper substances 
for the different colours, and with what liquid they shall be mois¬ 
tened, that they may be readily taken up by the blocks, and thence 
transferred to another body by pressure. 

From these blocks, and with these colours, let the figure be 
printed on paper; and, to prevent inaccuracy in bringing the se¬ 
parate parts, cut on the different blocks, to unite into a complete 
whole, let the paper be placed under the frame, secured in an im¬ 
movable position during the operation. The blocks being accu¬ 
rately squared, all exactly of the same dimensions, and each nicely 
fitting the frame, cannot, in passing through it to deliver then- 
several impressions, make the smallest deviation from their in¬ 
tended places, but must produce an exact picture—at least on the 
paper. 


THE ARTS. 


635 


To transfer that impression to glass, is indeed a work of nicety 
and difficulty. Were it not for some smaller strokes which must 
necessarily be in wood, the entire impression might be made on 
the glass itself, without any intervention of paper, since experience 
has proved to the calico-printer, that the great masses of colour 
cannot be successfully delivered from wood; therefore they are 
obliged, in those parts of their patterns, to use bits of smooth 
worn-out beaver hat, which might very well be pressed on the 
glass-plate. 

However, from what we every day see effected in the case of 
prints affixed to glass without any of the paper remaining, and also 
of copper-plate embellishments upon porcelain and queen’s ware, 
we doubt not that the picture while fresh, may, by well managed 
pressure, be transferred from the paper to an even plate of ground 
glass, coated with a proper gluten, which shall not, at least not ma¬ 
terially, offuscate its transparency ; and experiment must determine 
whether the paper may afterward be gently drawn or peeled off, or 
must be burned away, or destroyed by a corrosive liquid, if any 
such can be found which will not injure the colours. 

Suppose, however, the operation of removing the paper to be 
satisfactorily performed, proceed we now to secure the ndelibility 
of the picture. 

Let a square plate of cast- iron, an inch or two in thickness, and 
as level and smooth as possible, be furnished on every side with 
a metal ledge rising an inch or more in height, which ought to be 
in two separate pieces, the one permanently fastened to the plate, 
the other capable of being removed at pleasure, for the purpose of 
laying in and taking out the glass without violence. 

Within that ledge let the glass be fitted, closely touching it on 
every side, and lying with the painted surface uppermost. Upon 
this lay another plate of glass, fitted in the same manner. 

Let, now, the metal frame, with the enclosed glasses, be ex¬ 
posed to the action of fire until the glass plates, without being melted 
to absolute fluidity, shall nevertheless become sufficiently soft to 
coalesce into one body under a strong pressure. The body which 
conveys the pressure, and lies in immediate contact with the glass, 
must equally fit and completely fill the entire space between the 
ledges, that there be no room for the soft glass to spread in any 

direction. . , 

Those who have witnessed the process pursued in softening 

tortoise-shell in the fire, and pressing it into the vaiious shapes of 
snuff boxes, etuis, &c. &c., will not conceive much difficulty in 
this use of the glass. It may be managed by the aid of a machine 
somewhat similar to, but more powerful than, a common printing 


/ 


636 


YOUNG man’s CC M PAN ION. 


press, with a solid metal platine, to fit and fill the frame, as above ; 
though much better contrivances may be found among the multi¬ 
farious engines employed at Birmingham for the purposes of coining, 
and striking the heavy dies, than any we can possibly suggest. In 
whatever manner the two glasses may be pressed into union, the 
united body may be afterward ground and polished. 

enamelling. 

The delicate and beautiful art of enamelling, consists in the 
application of a smooth coating of vitrified matter, (transparent 
or opaque, and with or without colour, figures, and other orna¬ 
ments,) to a bright polished metallic substance. It is, therefore, 
a kind of varnish made of glass, and melted upon the substance 
to which it is applied, and affording a fine uniform ground for an 
infinite variety of ornaments, which are also fixed on by heat. 

The general principles on which enamelling is founded, are on 
the whole very simple; but, perhaps, there is none of all the 
chemico-mechanical arts which requires, for the finer parts, a 
greater degree of practical skill and dexterity, and of patient and 
accurate attention to minute processes. 

The concealment observed by those who profess this art, is 
proportioned to the difficulty of acquiring it; the general chemist 
must, therefore, content himself with the general principles of 
enamelling, and the detail of those particulars that are commonly 
known. 

Though the term enamelling is usually confined to the orna¬ 
mental glazing of metallic surfaces, it strictly applies to the glazing 
of pottery or porcelain, the difference being only that in the 
latter the surface is of baked clay. With regard to the com¬ 
position of coloured enamels (which are all tinged by different 
metallic oxydes), a very general account of the substances used 
will suffice in this place, the rest of the subject having been 
treated of in the preceding section. The enamelling on metals, 
will only be noticed in this place. The only metals that are 
enamelled, are gold and copper; and with the latter the opaque 
enamels are only used. Where the enamel is transparent and 
coloured, the metal chosen should be of that kind, as not only to 
have its surface unalterable when fully red-hot, but also to be in 
no degree chemically altered by the close contact of melted glass 
containing an abundance of some kind of metallic oxyde. This 
is the chief reason why coloured enamelling on silver is impracticable, 
though the brilliance of its surface is not impaired by mere heat; 
for if (for example) an enamel made yellow with oxyde of lead, or 


THE ARTS. 


637 


\ 


antimony, is laid on the surface of bright silver, and kept melted 
on it for a certain time, the silver and the enamel act on each 
other so powerfully, that the colour soon changes from a yellow 
to an orange, and lastly to a dirty olive. Copper is equally 
altered by the coloured enamels, so that gold is the only metal 
which can bear the long contact of the coloured glasses at full 
red heat without being altered by them. 

The simplest kind of enamel is that fine white opaque glass, 
which is applied to the dial plate of watches. The process of 
laying it on (which may serve as a general example of the art) 
is the following. 

A piece of thin copper sheet, hammered of the requisite con¬ 
vexity, is first accurately cut out, a hole drilled in the middle for 
the axis of the hands, and both the surfaces made perfectly bright, 
with a scratch brush. 

A small rim is then made round the circumference, with a thin 
brass band rising a little above the level, and a similar rim round 
the margin of the central hole. The use of these is to confine 
the enamel when in fusion, and keep the edges of the plate quite 
neat and even. The substance of the enamel is a fine white opaque 
glass, the material of which will be presently mentioned. This 
is bought in lump by the enamellers, and is first broken down with 
the hammer, then ground to a sufficiently fine powder, with some 
water, in an agate mortar; the superfluous water being then poured 
off, the pulverized enamel remains of about the consistence of 
wetted sand, and is spread very evenly over the surface of the 
copper plate by many dexterous manipulations. On most ena- 
mellings, and especially on this, it is necessary also to counter¬ 
enamel the under concave surface of the copper plate, to prevent 
its being drawn out of its true shape, by the unequal shrinking of 
the metal and enamel on cooling. For this kind of work, the 
counter-enamel is only about half the thickness on the concave 
as on the convex side. For flat plates, the thickness is the- same 
on both sides. 

The plate, covered with the moist enamel powder, is warmed and 
thoroughly dried, then gently set upon a thin earthen ring, that 
supports it only by touching the outer rim, and put gradually into 
the red hot muffle of the enameller’s furnace. This furnace is 
constructed somewhat like the assay furnace ; but the upper part 
alone of the muffle is much heated, and some peculiarities are 
observed in the construction, to enable the artist to govern the 
fire more accurately. 

The precise degree of fire to be given here as in all enamelling, 
is that at which the particles of the enamel run together into an 


638 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


uniform pasty consistence, and extend themselves evenly over 
the surface, showing a fine polished face, carefully avoiding on 
the other hand so great a heat as would endanger the melting 
of the thin metallic plate. When the enamel is thus seen to 
sweat down, as it were, to an uniform glossy glazing, the piece is 
gradually withdrawn and cooled, otherwise it would fly by the 
action of the cold air. 

A second coating of enamel is then laid on and fired as before, 
but this time the finest powder of enamel is taken, or that which 
remains suspended in the washings. It is then ready to receive 
the figures and division marks, which are made of a black enamel, 
ground in an agate mortar, with much labour, to a most impalpable 
powder, worked up on a pallet with oil of lavender, or spike, and 
laid on with an extremely fine hair brush. The plate is then 
stoved to evaporate the essential oil, and the figure burnt in as 
before. The polishing with tripoli, and minuter parts of the 
process, need not be here mentioned. 

If the enamel be chipped off a dial plate, (which may be done 
with the utmost ease, by bending it backwards and forwards, as 
the adhesion between the metal and glazing is very slight) the 
part immediately in contact with the copper will be found deeply 
and nearly uniformly browned, which shows how unfit copper alone 
would be'for the transparent enamels. 

The regulation of the fire appears to be the most difficult of 
all the parts of this nice process, particularly in the fine enamelling 
of gold for ornamental purposes, of designs, miniatures, and the 
like ; where three, four, or sometimes five separate firings are 
required. If the heat is too low, the enamel does not spread and 
vitrify as it ought; if too high, it may be enough to melt the 
metal itself, whose fusing point is but a small step above that of 
the enamel, or else (what is an equal mortification to the artist) 
the delicate figures, laid on with so much care and judgment, melt 
<lown in a moment, and the piece exhibits only a confused assem¬ 
blage of lines, and fragments of designs. 

The exact composition of the opaque white enamel, is a matter 
of considerable importance, and is procured by the enamellers 
from persons whose business it is to prepare it. A good enamel 
of this kind, fit to be applied to porcelain and metals, should be 
of a very clear fine white, so nearly opaque, as only to be trans¬ 
lucent at the edges ; and at a moderate red heat it should run 
into that kind of paste, or imperfect fusion, which allows it to 
extend itself freely and uniformly, and to acquire a glossy even 
surface, without, however, fully melting into a thin glass. The 
opaque white of this enamel is given by the oxyde of tin, which 




THE ARTS. 


039 


posseses, even in a small proportion, the property of rendering 
vitrescent mixtures white and opaque, or in still less proportion, 
milky; and when*otherwise coloured, opalescent. The oxyde of 
tin is always mixed with three or four times its quantity of oxyde 
of lead ; and it appears necessary that the metals should be pre¬ 
viously mixed by melting, and the alloy then calcined. The fol¬ 
lowing are the directions by Clouet for the composition of this 
enamel. Mix 100 parts of pure lead with 20 to 25 of the best 
tin, and bring them to a low red heat in an open vessel. The 
mixture then burns nearly as rapidly as charcoal, and oxidates 
very first. Skim off the crusts of oxyde, successivel) formed, till 
the whole is thoroughly calcined. It is better then to mix all 
the skimmings, and again heat as before, till no flame arises from 
them, and the whole is of an uniform grey colour. Take 100 
parts of this oxyde, 100 of sand, and 25 or 30 of common salt, 
and melt the whole in a moderate heat. This gives a greyish 
mass, often porous and apparently imperfect, but which, however, 
runs to a good enamel when afterwards heated. This is the enamel 
used for porcelain, but for metals and finer works the sand is pre¬ 
viously calcined in a very strong heat with a fourth of its weight, 
or if a more fusible compound is wanted, as much of the oxyde of 
tin and lead as of salt is taken, and the whole melted to a white 
porous mass. This is then employed instead of the rough sand, 
as in the above-mentioned process. The above proportions, how¬ 
ever, are not invariable, for if more fusibility is wanted, the dose 
of oxyde is increased, and that of the sand diminished, the quantity 
of common salt remaining the same. The sand employed in this 
process, according to Mr. Clouet, is not the common sort, however 
fine, but a micaceous sand, in which mica forms about one-fourth 
of the mixture. 

Neri, in his valuable treatise on glass-making, has given long ago 
the following proportions for the common material of all the opaque 
enamels, which Kunckel and other practical chemists have con¬ 
firmed. Calcine 30 parts of lead, with 33 of tin, with the pre¬ 
cautions mentioned above. Take of this calcined mixed oxyde 
50 pounds, and as much of powdered flints (prepared by being 
thrown into water when red hot, and then ground to powder), 
and eight ounces of salt of tartar; melt the mixture in a strong 
fire kept up for ten hours, after which reduce the mass to powder. 
This is the common material for the opaque enamels, and is of a 
grey white. To make this fine enamel quite white, mix six 
pounds of this material with 48 grains of the best black oxyde Oi 
manganese, and melt in a clear fire. When fully fused, throw 
it into cold water, then re-melt and cool as before two or three 


G4G 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


times, till the enamel is quite white and fine. Kunckel observes 
on this process, that he tried it without the oxyde of manganese, 
but the enamel, instead of being milk-white, was bluish, and not 
good, so that there is no doubt but that this oxyde is highly im¬ 
portant. If too much is used, the enamel becomes of a rose 
purple. 

Coloured enamels are composed of a common basis, which is 
a fusible mixture of vitrified materials, and of some metallic 
oxyde. In general, the coloured enamels are required to be trans¬ 
parent, in which case, the basis is a kind of glass, composed of 
borax, sand, and oxyde of lead, or other vitrescent mixtures, in 
which the proportion of saline or metallic flux is more or less 
according to the degree of heat that the colouring oxyde will bear 
without decomposition. When the coloured enamel is to be 
opaque, or opalescent, a certain portion of the white opaque 
enamel, or of the oxyde of tin, is added to the mixture. The 
most beautiful and costly colour known in enamelling, is an ex¬ 
quisitely fine rich red, with a purplish tinge, given by the salts 
and oxydes of gold, expecially the purple precipitate, formed by 
tin in one form or other, and nitro-muriate of gold, and also bv 
the fulminating gold. This beautiful colour requires much skill 
in "the artist to be fully brought out. It is said, that when most 
perfect, it should come from the fire quite colourless, and after¬ 
wards receive its colour by the flame of a candle. Gold colours 
will not bear a violent fire. 

Other and common reds are given by the oxyde of iron, but 
this requires the mixture of alumine, or some other substance 
refractory in the fire, otherwise at a full red heat the colour will 
degenerate into black. 

Yellow is given either by the oxyde of silver alone, or by the 
oxydes of lead and antimony, with similar mixtures to those 
required for iron. The silver is as tender a colour as gold, and 
readily injured or lost in a high heat. 

Green is given by the oxyde of copper, or it may also be pro¬ 
cured by a mixture of blue and yellow colours. 

Blue is given by cobalt; and this seems of all enamel colours 
the most certain, and easily manageable. 

Black is produced by a mixture of cobalt and manganese. 

The reader may conceive how much the difficulties of this nice 
art are increased, when the object is not merely to lav uniform 
coloured glazing on a metallic surface, but also to paint that surface 
with figures and other designs, that require extreme delicacy of 
outline, accuracy of shading, and selection of colouring. The 
enamel painter has to work, not with actual colours, but with 



THE ARTS. 


611 


mixtures, which he only knows from experience will produce certain 
colours after the delicate operation of the fire ; and to the common 
skill of the painter, in the arrangement of his palette and choice of 
his colours, the enameller has to add an infinite quantity of 
practical knowledge of the chemical operation of one metallic oxvde 
on another, the fusibility of his materials, and the utmost degree 
of heat at which they will retain not only the accuracy of the figures 
which he has given, but the precise shade of colour wh ch he 
intends to lay on. 

Painting in enamel requires a succession of firings ; first of the 
ground which is to receive the design, and which itself requires 
two firings, and then of the different parts of the design itself. 
The ground is laid on in the same general way as the common 
watch face enamelling already described. The colours are the 
different metallic oxydes, melted with some vitrescent mixture, and 
ground to extreme fineness. These are worked up with an essen¬ 
tial oil (that of spike is preferred, and next to it oil of lavender) 
to the proper consistence of oil colours, and are laid on with a 
very fine hair brush. The essential oil should be very pure, and 
the use of this, rather than any fixed oil, is probably that the whole 
may evaporate completely in a moderate heat, and leave no car¬ 
bonaceous matter in contact with the colour when red hot, which 
might affect its degree of oxydation, and thence the shade of 
colour which it is intended to produce. As the colour of some 
vitrified metallic oxydes (such as that of gold) will stand only at 
a very moderate heat, while others will bear, and even require, a 
higher temperature to be properly fixed, it forms a great part of the 
technical skill of the artist to supply the different colours in proper 
order; fixing first those shades which are produced by the colours 
that will endure the highest heat, and finishing with those that 
demand the least. The outline of the design is first traced 
on the ground enamel, and burnt in ; after which, the parts are 
filled up gradually with repeated burnings, to the last and finest 
touches of the tenderest enamel. 

Transparent enamels are scarcely ever laid upon any other metal 
than gold, on account of the discoloration produced by other metals, 
as already explained. If, however, copper is the metal used, it 
is first covered with a thin enamel coating, over which gold leaf 
is laid and burnt in, so that, in fact, it is still this metal that is the 
basis of the ornamental enamel. With regard to the vast number 
of important minutiae in the selection and order of applying the 
colours, the management of the fire, &c. &c. almost the whole of 
what is known on this subject is confined to the practical artist; 
nor could this knowledge, if obtained, interest the general reader. 

4 N 


642 


YOUNG MAN^S COMPANION. 


Section IV. —Engraving. 

This curious and valuable art is for the most part of modern in¬ 
vention, having its rise no earlier than the middle of the fifteenth 
century. The ancients, indeed, practised engraving on precious 
stones and crystals with very good success ; and there are still 
many of their works remaining equal to any production of the 
latter ages. But the art of engraving on plates and blocks of 
wood, to afford prints or impressions, was not known till after the 
invention of painting in oil. Of these last, the most ancient mode 
is that on wood, the first impressions on paper having been taken 
from carved wooden blocks. For this invention we are indebted 
to the brief-malers , or makers of playing-cards, who practised the 
art in Germany about the beginning of the fifteenth century. From 
the same source may perhaps be traced the first idea of movable 
types, which appeared not long after ; for these brief-malers did 
not entirely confine themselves to the printing and painting of 
cards, but produced also subjects of a more devout nature ; many 
of which, taken from holy writ, are still preserved in German libra¬ 
ries, with the explanatory text facing the figures ; the whole en¬ 
graved in wood. Thus a species of books was formed; such as, 
Historia Sancti Johannis, ejusque Visiones Apocalypticm ; His- 
toria Veteris et Novi Testamenti, known by the name pf the Poor 
Man’s Bible. These short mementos were printed only on one 
side ; and two of them being pasted together, had the appearance of 
a single leaf. The earliest date on anv of these wooden cuts is 1428. 

Upon the invention of movable types, that branch of the 
brief-malers business, so far as it regarded making of books, 
was gradually discontinued; but the art itself of engraving on 
wood continued in an improving state, and towards the end of 
the fifteenth century, and the beginning of the sixteenth century, 
it became customary for almost every one of the German engravers 
on copper to engrave on wood also. The works of Albert Durer 
in this style of engraving are justly held in the highest esteem. 
Italy, France, and Holland, have produced many capital artists of 
this kind; but for boldness and spirit we must see the prints of 
Christopher Jegher, who worked under the direction of Rubens, 
and was without doubt assisted by that great master. The in¬ 
vention of that species of engraving distinguished bv the appel¬ 
lation of chiaro scuro, seems also to be justly claimed by the 
Germans, and first practised by Mair ; one of whose prints of this 
kind is dated 1499. In Germany, about a.d. 1450, prints from 
engraved copper first made their appearance. The earliest date 
of a copper-plate print is 14(11. 




THE ARTS. 


643 


With respect to the invention of etching, it seems to be not 
well known to whom it is to be ascribed. One of the most early 
specimens is the print of Albert Durer, known by the name of 
the Cannon, dated 1518, and thought by some, with little foun¬ 
dation, to have been worked on a plate of iron. Another etching, 
by the same artist, is Moses receiving the tables of the law, 
dated 15&4. It was also practised in Italy soon after this, by 
Parmegiano, in whose etchings we discover the hand of the artist 
working out a system, as it were, from his own imagination, and 
striving to produce the forms he wanted to express. As to that 
species of engraving in which the modes of etching and cutting 
with the graver are united, it must have been found necessary 
immediately upon the invention of etching ; it was, however, first 
carried to perfection by G. Audran, and is now almost universally 
practised, whether the work is in strokes or in dots. Engraving 
in dots is a very old invention, and the only mode discovered bv 
the Italians. Agostino de Musis, commonly called Augustine of 
Venice, a pupil of Marc Antonio, used it in several of his earliest 
works, but confined it to the flesh, as in the undated print of an 
old man seated upon a bank, with a cottage in the back-ground. 
He flourished from 1500 to 1536. 

Engraving in mezzotinto was invented about the middle of the 
seventeenth century; and the invention has generally been attri¬ 
buted to prince Rupert. Engraving in aquatinta is quite a recent 
invention, and seems at once to have been carried to perfection 
by Sandby, and other artists of the present age. Engraving with 
the tool was the kind originally practised, and it is yet retained for 
many purposes. For though etching is more easy, and other 
advantages attend it; yet where great regularity and exactness of 
the strokes or lines are* required, the working with the graver is 
much more effectual; on which account it is more suitable to the 
precision necessary in the execution of portraits. Historical en¬ 
gravings for the port-folio and furniture, seemed at one period to 
advance rapidly towards perfection, to which the late alderman 
Boydell largely contributed; but the death of Strange, Hall, and 
Wool let, have been almost fatal to the hopes of the amateur, 
which rest, in a great measure, upon Heath, Sharp, Biomlev, 
and a few others, as in this particular instance we do not include 
those eminent foreigners who have resided, or do at present 
reside in England. 

Till within the last few years, all works of art were engraved 
on plates of copper, but latterly steel has been substituted, with 
great effect, for all subjects which require a great number of 
impressions. In engraving on steel, the same process is to be 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


64 i 

followed as on copper, but instead of aquafortis, other chemical 
substances are employed in the biting in. Some of the finest and 
most delicate subjects engraven on steel will produce 10,000 
impressions, while the same on copper will not exceed 1500 
or 2000. 

Lithography .—A very ingenious process has of late years been 
employed on the continent, to answer at the same time both the 
purposes of designing and engraving; or, in other words, to 
produce an engraving by the art of designing. This art, or 
process, is called Lithography, or stone-engraving; and among 
the German artists, who have recourse to it, Chemische Druckery, 
or chemical printing. It was first discovered, in a.d. 1800, by 
Aloys Senefelder, one of the performers in the theatre-royal at 
Munich, in Bavaria. 

M. Senefelder, soon after this discovery, obtained the exclusive 
privilege of carrying it on in the dominions of the elector of 
Bavaria for thirteen years. In 1808, he introduced his discovery 
into Vienna, where he obtained a similar grant for ten years. 
The invention spread, though slowly, into France and Italy; but 
was not brought over to England till some time after, when 
M. Andre D’Offenbach, a merchant in London, succeeded in 
obtaining several beautiful drawings on stone by the first artists, 
which were afterwards published in numbers, containing six im¬ 
pressions, at half-a-guinea each. The invention has, during the 
last few years, received considerable patronage in England, parti¬ 
cularly through the attention bestowed on it by Mr. Ackermann, 
and has proved a valuable addition to the various modes of 
engraving. It differs, in its fundamental principles, from all 
other methods previously in use, and therefore has been called 
chemical printing. All the other methods of printing, hitherto 
known, might be divided into two branches; the one multiplying 
the original by elevated forms, the other by engraved forms. 

1 o the first branch belong the common letter-press printing, that 
of Avooden blocks, etc.; under the second may be included all 
the methods of engraving on copper, tin, etc. But the lithographic 
art differs from both these, and depends entirely on the folloAving 
chemical principles:—1, The facility with which water is imbibed 
by calcareous stones; 2. The strong adhesion which exists be- 
tween resinous or oily substances and calcareous stones; 8. The 
affinity which resinous or oily substances have for each other, and 
t ie quality which they possess of repelling water, or any body 
moistened with water. J 

All calcareous stones, that are susceptible of a fine polish and 

capable of being penetrated by an oily substance, and of imbibim* 

© 


r 


N 

THE ARTS. 645 

water with facility, are applicable to this art. The more compact 
they are, however, the more valuable; and it is necessary also that 
they be of a uniform colour. The quarries of Germany abound 
with stones of this description; they were chiefly a sort of calca¬ 
reous slate, found in the country from Dietfort to Pappenheim, 
and along the banks of the Danube, down to Kelheim. The 
stones were indeed thought to be peculiar to Germany; but it 
has been discovered, that a similar stone is to be found in great 
abundance in the neighbourhood of Bath, and some parts of 
Scotland, and they are now in common use. 

The chemical ink is used for writing or drawing immediately 
on the stone, or for covering the surface of it, like etching ground, 
or for transferring drawings, executed on paper, to the stone. 
The following composition was recommended by M. Senefelder: 

White beeswax .... by weight 8 parts. 

Soap. ,, 2 „ 

Lampblack. „ 1 „ 

But this has been subsequently much varied and improved, and 
the art has been brought to such perfection as to rival some of the 
finest efforts of the graving tool. Very recently also plates of 
zinc have been substituted with considerable success for stone, 
and beautiful drawings have been produced from them. 

A great variety of works on drawing are now published by 
Ackermann and others, blit they arc too well known to need being 
mentioned. 


Section V.— Sculpture. 

Engraving is occasionally called working en creux , sculpture 
working in relievo: yet, in its comprehensive range, the word 
sculpture has been applied to both these. 

The studies necessary for the young sculptor, towards the 
attainment of his art, are so similar to those which form the 
painter (with' the obvious exceptions arising from the difference of 
materials employed in the two arts), that very little remains here 
to be enlarged on, under the head of studies. ^The principal 
acquisitions to which the student must direct his endeavours are, 
a knowledge of composition, form (including anatomy), and ex¬ 
pression ; to which, as in painting, must be added the difficult 
study of grace. 

The method of study most recommended to young sculptors 
is, to begin with copying, and to end with rivalling, the forms of 
the Greek statues. 



YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


CIO 

The method of execution in the Greek statues and other works 
of sculpture seems to have been extremely different from that 
which is generally in use among modern artists. In the ancient 
statues, we frequently find striking proofs of the freedom and 
boldness that accompanied each stroke of the chisel, and which 
resulted from the artist's being perfectly sure of the accuracy of 
the method which he pursued. Even in the most minute parts 
of the figure, no indication of timorousness or diffidence appears: 
nothing that can induce us to believe that the artist feared he 
might have occasion to correct his strokes. It is difficult to find, 
even in the second-rate productions of Grecian artists, any marks 
of a false or a random touch. This firmness and precision of the 
Grecian chisel were certainly derived from a more determined 
and perfect set of rules than those of which we are masters. 

Besides studying, therefore, in the productions of the Grecian 
masters, their choice and expression of select nature, whether 
beautiful, sublime, or graceful, together with that sedate grandeur 
and simplicity which pervade all their works, the artist will do 
well to investigate the manual and mechanical part of their 
operations, as they may lead to the perception of their mode of 
progress. 

- As soon as the artist has rendered himself familiarly acquainted 
with the beauties of the Grecian statues, and formed his tastes on 
the admirable models they exhibit, he may then proceed with 
advantage and assurance to the imitation of nature. By observing 
her dispersed beauties combined and collected in the composition 
of the ancient artists, he will be enabled to acquire with facility, 
and to employ with advantage, the detached and partial ideas of 
beauty which will be exhibited to his view in a survey of nature 
in her actual state. When he discovers these partial beauties, 
he will be capable of combining them with those perfect forms of 
beauty with which he is already acquainted. In a word, by 
having always present to his mind the noble models already men¬ 
tioned, he will form an accurate judgment of the powers of his 
art, and will draw rules from his own mind. 

There are, however, two ways of imitating nature. In the one, 
a single object occupies the artist, who endeavours to represent it 
with precision and truth; in the other, certain lines and features 
are taken from a variety of objects, and combined and blended 
into one regular whole. All kinds of copies belong to the first 
kind of imitation ; and productions of this sort must necessarily 
be executed in a confined and servile manner, with high finishing, 
and little or no invention. But the second kind of imitation 
leads directly to the investigation and discovery of true beauty,— 


THE ARTS. 


GIT 

of that beauty whose perfect idea is only to be found within the 
mind. 

Different Modes of Process in Sculpture .—Works of sculpture 
are performed, either by hollowing or excavating, as in metals, 
agates, and other precious stones, and in marbles of every descrip¬ 
tion ; or by working in relief, as in bas-reliefs, in the materials 
just mentioned, or in statues of metal, clay, wood, wax, marble, 
or stone. 

The excavation of precious stones forms a particular branch of 
art, called intaglio, which, together with the working them in 
relievo, when the term camayeu is applied to them, belongs to 
the art of seal engraving'. 

The excavation of metals constitutes the art of engraving, in its 
various branches, on metal of any kind; and its relief comprises 
enchasing, casting in bronze, &c. 

The process of hollowing hard stone or marble will need no 
particular description ; especially as it is now wholly in disuse, 
except for the forming of letters in monumental or other in¬ 
scriptions. 

In working in relief, the process is necessarily different, accord¬ 
ing to the materials in which the work is performed. 

As not only the beginning of sculpture was in clay, for the 
purpose of forming statues, but as models are still made in clay 
or wax for every work undertaken by the sculptor, we shall first 
consider the method of modelling figures in clay or w r ax. 

Few tools are necessary for modelling in clay. The clay being 
placed on a stand or sculptor's easel, the artist begins the work 
with his hands, and puts the whole into form by the same means. 
The most expert practitioners of this art seldom use any other 
tool than their fingers, except in such small or sharp parts of their 
work as the fingers cannot reach. For these occasions, they are 
provided with three or four small tools of wood, about seven or 
eight inches in length, which are rounded at one end, and at the 
other flat and shaped into a sort of claws. These tools are called 
by the French ebauchoirs. In some of these the claws are smooth, 
for the purpose of smoothing the surface of the model, and in the 
others are made with teeth, to rake or scratch the clay, which is 
the first process of the tool on the work, and in which state many 
parts of the model are frequently left by artists, to give an appear¬ 
ance of freedom and skill to their work. 

If clay could be made to preserve its original moisture, it would 
undoubtedly be the fittest substance for the models of the sculptor; 
but when it is placed either in the fire, or left to dry imper¬ 
ceptibly in the air, its solid parts grow more compact, and the 


G48 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

work shrinks, or loses a part of its dimensions. This diminution 
in size would be of no consequence, if it affected the whole work 
equally, so as to preserve its proportions. But this is not always 
the case : for the smaller parts of the figure drying sooner than the 
larger, and thus losing more of their dimensions in the same space 
of time than the latter do, the symmetry and proportions of the 
work inevitably suffer. 

This inconvenience, however, is obviated by forming the model 
first in clay, and moulding it in plaster of Paris before it begins 
to dry, and the taking a plaster cast from that mould, and the 
repairing it carefully from the original work ; by which means you 
have the exact counterpart of the model in its most perfect state; 
and you have, besides, your clay at liberty for any other work. 

In order to model in wax, the artist sometimes uses his fingers, 
and sometimes tools of the same sort as those described for 
modelling in clay. It is at first more difficult to model in wax 
than in clay, but practice will render it familiar and easy. 

Use of the Model .—Whatever considerable work is undertaken 
by the sculptor, whether bas-relief, or statue, etc., it is always 
requisite to form a previous model, of the same size as the intended 
work ; and the model being perfected, according to the method 
before described, whether it is in clay, or in wax, or a cast in 
plaster of Paris, becomes the rule, whereby the artist guides him¬ 
self in the conduct of his work and the standard from which he 
takes all its measurements. In order to regulate himself more 
correctly by it, he puts over the head of the model an immovable 
circle, divided into degrees, with a movable rule fastened in the 
centre of the circle, and likewise-divided into parts. From the 
extremity of the rule hangs a line with a lead, which directs him 
in taking all the points, which are to be transferred from the 
model to the marble; and from the top of the marble is hung also 
a line, tallying with that which is hung from the model; by the 
correspondence of which two lines, the points are ascertained in 
the marble. 

Many eminent sculptors prefer measurements taken by the 
compasses to the method just described ; for this reason, that if 
the model is moved but ever so little from its level, the points are 
no longer the same. 

This method, however, offers the best means, by which mecha¬ 
nical precision may be attained; but it is manifest, that enough 
yet remains to exercise and display the genius and skill of the 
artist. For, first, as it is impossible, by the means of a straight 
line, to determine with precision the procedure of a curve, the 
artist derives from this method no certain rule to guide him, 


niK ARTS. 


Cl 9 

as often as the line which lie is to describe deviates from the 
direction of the plumb line. It is also evident, that this method 
affords no certain rule to determine exactly the proportion, which 
the various parts of the figure ought to bear to each other, con¬ 
sidered in their mutual relation and connexions. This defect, 
indeed, may be partly supplied by intersecting the plumb' lines 
by horizontal ones ; but even this resource has its inconveniences, 
since the squares formed by transversal lines that are at a distance 
from the figure, (though they are exactly equal,) yet represent the 
parts of the figure as greater or smaller, according as they are more 
or less removed from our point of view. 

Sculpture in Wood —A sculptor in wood should first take care 
to choose wood of the best quality, and the most proper for the 
work which he intends to execute. If he undertakes a lanre 

o 

work, requiring strength and solidity, he ought to choose the 
hardest wood, and that which keeps best, as oak and chestnut; 
but for works of moderate size, pear or apple tree serve very well. 
As even these latter woods are still of considerable hardness, if 
the work consists only of delicate ornaments, the artist will find 
it preferable to take some more tender wood, provided it is at 
the same time firm and close; as, for instance, the Indian tree, 
which is excellent for this purpose, as the chisel cuts it more 
neatly and easily than any other wood. 

The ancients made.statues out of almost everv different kind 
of wood. At Sicyon was a statue of Apollo made of box; the 
statue of Diana at Ephesus was of cedar. As these two sorts of 
wood are extremely hard and undecaying, and as cedar, in particular, 
is of such a nature as, according to Pliny, to be nearly indestruc¬ 
tible, the ancients preferred them for the images of their divinities. 

In the temple built on Mount Cvllene in honour of Mercury, 
Pausanias relates, that there was a statue of that god made of 
citron wood, eight feet in height. This wood was also much 
esteemed. 

The cypress, likewise, being a wood not apt to spoil, nor to be 
damaged by worms, was also used for statues, as were the palm 
tree, olive, and ebony, of which latter, according to Pliny’s 
account, there was another statue of Diana at Ephesus. 

Several other kinds of wood were equally employed for this 
purpose, even the vine, of which the same author says there were 
statues of Jupiter, Juno, and Diana. 

Felibien speaks of a French artist at Florence, of the name of 
Jauni, who executed several statues in wood, in a style of finish¬ 
ing equal to marble, and particularly one of St. Rocque, which 
Vasari considered as a marvellous production. 

4 o 


65 0 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


The beauty of sculpture in wood consists in the tender manner 
of cutting the wood, free from all appearance of hardness or 
dryness. 

For any work of large dimensions, even though it consists of a 
single figure, it is better to join together several smaller pieces of 
wood than to make the whole of a single large piece, which is 
more liable to warp and crack, on account of its not being dry at 
heart, although it appears perfectly dry on the outside. 

No wood can be properly fit for works of this kind that has 
not been cut at least ten years before. 

The tools used for sculpture in wood are the same as those of 
the joiner or cabinet maker. 

Sculpture in Stone and Marble .—For sculpture in marble and 
other stone the artist must make use of tools made of good steel, 
well tempered, and of strength proportioned to the hardness of 
the material. 

The first thing to be done is, to saw out from a larger block of 
marble a block proportioned to the size of the work which is 
undertaken. After this, the sculptor shapes the gross masses of 
the forms he designs to represent, by knocking off the superfluous 
parts of marble with a strong mallet or beetle, and a strong steel 
tool called a point. 

When the block is thus hewn out agreeably to the measure 
previously taken for the performance of the work, the sculptor 
brings it nearer to the intended form by means of a finer point, 
and sometimes of a tool called a dog's tooth, having two points, 
but less sharp than the single one. 

After this he uses the gradine, which is a flat cutting tool, with 
three teeth, but is not so strong as the point. 

Having advanced his work with the gradine, he uses the chisel 
to take off the ridges left by the former tools; and by the dexte¬ 
rous and delicate use of this instrument, he gives softness and 
tenderness to the figure, till at length, by taking a rasp, which is 
a sort of a file, he brings his work into a proper state for being 
polished. 

Rasps are of several kinds, some straight, some curved, and 
some harder or softer than others. 

When the sculptor has thus far finished his work with the best 
tools he can procure, wherever certain parts or particular works 
require polishing, he uses pumice stone, to make all the parts 
smooth and even. He then goes over them with tripoli, and 
when he would give a still higher gloss, he rubs them with leather 
and straw ashes. 

Besides the tools already mentioned, sculptors use also the 


THE ARTS. 


651 


pick, which is a small hammer pointed at one end, and at the 
other formed of teeth made with good steel, and squared, to 
render them the stronger. This serves to break the marble, and 
is used in all places where the two hands cannot be employed to 
manage the mallet and chisel. 

The bouchard, which is a piece of iron, well steeled at the 
bottom, and formed into several strong and short points like a 
diamond, is used for making a hole of equal dimensions, which 
cannot be done with cutting tools. The bouchard is driven with 
the mallet or beetle, and its points bruise the marble and reduce 
it to powder. Water is thrown into the hole from time to time, 
in proportion to the depth that is made, to bring out the dust of 
the marble, and to prevent the tool from heating, which would 
destroy its temper; for the freestone dust, on which tools are 
edged, is only moistened with water to prevent the iron from 
heating, and taking off the temper of the tool by being rubbed 
dry; and the trepens are wetted for the same reason. 

The sculptor uses the bouchard to bore or pierce such parts 
of his work as the chisel cannot reach without danger of spoiling 
or breaking them. In using it, he passes it through a piece of 
leather, which leather covers the hole made by the bouchard, and 
prevents the water from squirting up in his face. 

The tools necessary for sculpture on marble or stone are, the 
roundel, which is a sort of rounded chisel; the houguet, which is 
a chisel squared and pointed ; and various compasses to take the 
requisite measures. 

The process of sculpture in stone is the same as in marble, 
except that the material being less hard than marble, the tools 
used are not so strong, and some of them are of a different form, 
as the rasp, the handsaw, the ripe, the straight chisel with three 
teeth, the roundel, and the grater. 

If the work is executed in free-stone, tools are employed which 
are made on purpose, as the free-stone is apt to scale, and does 
not work like hard stone or marble. 

Sculptors in stone have commonly a bowl in which they keep a 
powder, composed of plaster of Paris, mixed with the same stone 
in which their work is executed. With this composition they fill 
up the small holes, and repair the defects which they meet with 
in the stone itself. 

Section VI.— Pottery and Porcelain. 

Porcelain may be regarded as the finest kind of pottery; the 
art of which consists in,working and moulding plastic earths, 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 

/ 

more or less simple, into hard brittle vessels of various kinds and 
forms, and designed for various purposes. 

The essential material of pottery is clay, which alone possesses 
the two requisite qualities of being in its natural state so plastic 
that with water it becomes a soft uniform extensible mass, capable 
of assuming and retaining any form ; and when thoroughly dried, 
and it has undergone a red heat for a time, of losing this plasticity, 
becoming irretentive of water to any considerable degree, hard, 
dose in texture, and able more or less perfectly to confine all 
liquids contained within its hollow. 

Clay, however, is in all instances a very compound substance; 
it owes its plasticity to alumine, which forms a constituent part of 
it; but the proportion of alumine varies considerably in different 
species, and almost as much as the other substances with which it is 
combined. * 

It may hence be supposed, that many of the impure-coloured 
natural clays are of themselves sufficiently mixed with other earths 
for the potter’s use without any addition ; but the white and finer 
clays mostly require dilution with silex in some form or other, 
which may be done to a considerable extent, without taking away 
the plasticity requisite for working. 

. The most important circumstances requisite to be considered in 
selecting the materials for pottery are plasticity, contractility, so¬ 
lidity, and compactness after drying, colour, and fusibility. 

The plasticity seems to be simply owing to the proportion of 
clay used, or relatively to the original plasticity of the clay itself; 
for all clays are not equally plastic, and the superadded substances 
in no instance increase this property, and in many cases considerably 
diminish it. J 

The texture, including the qualities of hardness and compact¬ 
ness, depends partly on the mixture of siliceous (flinty or sandy) 
ingredients with the clay, and partly on the heat employed in the 
burning of the pottery. The purer natural clays are almost in¬ 
fusible in any furnace heat; their hardness is nearly progressive 
with the intensity of the fire; but they have the essential defects 
of drying very slowly, of shrinking very considerably, and of be¬ 
coming rifty or full of minute cracks when dried, so as on this 
account to be porous. It is therefore necessary to mix them in¬ 
timately with any other earth of qualities opposite to those of 
clay ; that is, which absorbs but little water, and quickly parts with 
it (qualities directly opposite to plasticity), and which dries com¬ 
pact and close. 

The colour of the earths used is also of essential importance in 
the finer pottery, in which the great desideratum is to find a clay 



THE ARTS. 


653 

which after burning remains perfectly white. The appearance 
before burning cannot always be depended upon, for though in 
general the whitest clays before burning are those that remain 
white afterwards, it is only in a few districts that clays are to be 
found that retain a perfect whiteness. Thus, there exists at the 
foot of a range of high hills, that directly overlook the Stafford¬ 
shire potteries, a stratum of white clay, to appearanee fully equal, 
if not superior, to the best Devonshire clays, which cannot be 
employed for fine pottery, from its acquiring in burning a yellowish 
cream colour, which no art can correct. This colour is supposed 
to depend on an intermixture of iron’. 

The fusibility of clays and of other pottery earths, is a subject 
of extreme importance, as it is this property that principally con¬ 
stitutes the difference between common pottery and porcelain. 

The most perfect and beautiful porcelains of Japan and China, 
are composed of two distinct earths; one in which silex predomi¬ 
nates, and which melts in a strong fire ; and another, which is in¬ 
fusible per se; and by the union of those two earths, a porcelain is 
produced, which scarcely vitrifies at the utmost furnace heat which 
art can excite. This substance possesses the combined excellences 
of great hardness, beautiful semi transparency, exquisite whiteness, 
where not artificially coloured, strong toughness and cohesion ; so 
that it has strength enough for the purposes for which it is designed 
when made very thin, and bears sudden heating and cooling 
without cracking. 

Of the beautiful European porcelains which have been made in 
imitation of the oriental, it does not appear that any of them 
unite all its excellences. 

The manufacture of the ordinary pottery is on the whole very 
simple, where a due selection of materials is made ; but the or¬ 
namental branches of it, such as those of modelling, enamelling, 
painting, and gilding, which often display exquisite beauty, are 
accompanied with much delicacy, and require a combination of 
perseverance, skill, and practical nicety of management, that are 
rarely equalled in any other chemical manufacture. 

An intimate mixture of the ingredients used in pottery is of 
great importance to the beauty, compactness, and soundness of 
the ware. Formerly the wet clay, and ground flint, or whatever else 
was employed, were beaten together with long-continued manual 
labour, no more water being added than was necessary to render 
the clay thoroughly plastic. This laborious and expensive method 
has now been laid aside in the larger potteries; and the ingenious 
method has been substituted of bringing each material first to an 
impalpable powder, and diffusing them separatelv in as much 


654 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


"water as will bring them to the consistence of thick cream, mixing 
them in due proportion by measure, and then thoroughly stirring 
together, evaporating the superfluous water till the mass is brought 

to a proper consistence for working. 

In the Staffordshire process the materials are a fine clay, brought 
chiefly from Devonshire, and a siliceous stone called chert, or else 
common flint reduced to powdpr by heating it red-hot, quenching 
it in water, and then grinding it by wind-mills. Each material is 
passed through fine brass sieves, then diffused in water, mixed by 
measure, and brought to a plastic state as above. 

The wheel and lathe are the chief, and almost the only instru¬ 
ments made use of; the first for large works, and the last for 
small. The potter’s wheel consists principally in the nut, which 
is a beam or axis, whose foot or pivot plays perpendicularly on a 
free-stone sole or bottom. From the four corners of this beam, 
which does not exceed two feet in height, arise four iron bars, 
called the spokes of the wheel; which forming diagonal lines with 
the beam, descend, and are fastened at bottom to the edges of a 
strong wooden circle, four feet in diameter, perfectly like the 
felloe & of a coach-wheel, except that it has neither axis nor radii, 
and is only joined to the beam, which serves it as an axis, by the 
iron bars/ The top of the nut is flat, of a circular figure, and a 
foot in diameter; and on this is laid the clay which is to be turned 
and fashioned. The wheel, thus disposed, is encompassed with 
four sides of four different pieces of wood, fastened on a wooden 
frame; the hind piece, which is that on which the woikman sits, 
is made a little inclining towards the wheel; on the fore piece is 
placed the prepared earth ; on the side-pieces he rests his feet, 
and these are made inclining to give more or less room. Having 
prepared the earth, the potter lays a round piece of it on the cir¬ 
cular head of the nut, and sitting down, turns the wheel with his 
feet, till it has got the proper velocity ; then, wetting his hands 
with water, he presses his fist or his finger-ends into the middle of 
the lump, and thus forms the cavity of the vessel, continuing to 
widen it from the middle; and thus turning the inside into form 
with one hand, while he proportions the outside with the other; 
the wheel constantly turning all the while, and he wetting his 
hands from time to time. Where the vessel is too thick, he uses 
a flat piece of iron, somewhat sharp on the edge, to pare off what 
is redundant; and when it is finished, it is taken off fiom the 
circular head, by a wire passed underneath the vessel. 

The potter’s lathe is also a kind of wheel, but more simple and 
slierht than the former; its three chief members are an iron beam, 
or axis, three feet and a half high, and two feet and a half in 



THE ARTS. 


/» r r 

O 00 

diameter, placed horizontally at the top of the beam, and serving 
to form the vessel upon; and another large wooden wheel, all of 
a piece, three inches thick, and two or three feet broad, fastened 
to the same beam at the bottom, and parallel to the horizon. 
The beam or axis turns by a pivot at the bottom in an iron stand. 
The workman gives the motion to the lathe with his feet, by 
pushing the great wheel alternately with each foot, still giving it a 
greater or lesser degree of motion, as his work requires. They 
work with the lathe, with the same instruments, and after the same 
manner, as with the wheel. The mouldings are formed by hold¬ 
ing a piece of wood or iron, cut in the form of the moulding, to 
the vessel, while the wheel is turning round; but the feet and 
handles are made by themselves, and set on with the hand; and 
if there be any sculpture in the work, it is usually done in wooden 
moulds, and stuck on piece by piece on the outside of the vessel. 

Handles, spouts, &c. are afterwards fixed on to the moulded 
piece, if required ; and it is then set to dry for some days in a warm 
room, where it becomes so hard as to bear handling without alter¬ 
ing its shape. When dry enough, it is inclosed along with many 
others in baked clay cases of the shape of bandboxes, called seg- 
gars, which are made of the coarse clays of the country. These 
are next ranged in the kiln or furnace so as to fill it, except a space 
in the middle for the fuel. Here the ware is baked till it has re¬ 
mained fully red hot for a considerable time, which in the larger 
kilns consumes ten or fifteen tons of coals; after which the fire is 
allowed to go out, and when all is cooled, the seggars are taken 
out, and their contents unpacked. 

The ware is now in a state of biscuit, perfectly void of gloss, 
and resembling a clean egg shell. In order to glaze it, which is 
the next process, the biscuit ware is dipped in a tub containing a 
mixture of about sixty parts of litharge, ten of clay, and twenty 
of ground flint, diffused in water to a creamy consistence, and 
when taken out, enough adheres to the piece to give an uniform 
glazing, when again heated ; for which purpose the pieces are re¬ 
packed up in the seggars, with small bits of pottery interposed 
between each, and fixed in the kiln as before. The glazing mix¬ 
ture fuses at a very moderate heat, and gives an uniform glossy 
coating, which finishes the process for common white ware; 
though the painting and gilding require subsequent attention. 

Section VII.— Architecture. 

That architecture is of great antiquity is undeniable; but the 
primitive buildings were very different from the specimens of archi¬ 
tecture which we now meet with in civilized countries. In those 


OG O 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


mild climates which seem to have been the first inhabited parts of 
this globe, mankind stood more in need of shade from the sun, 
than of shelter from the inclemency of the weather. A very 
small addition to the shade of the woods served them for a 
dwelling. Sticks laid across from tree to tree, and covered with 
brushwood and leaves, formed the first houses in those delightful 
regions. As population and the arts improved, these huts were 
gradually refined into commodious dwellings. 

After the discovery of iron and other metals, when the axe, 
the hammer, the saw, and the plane, became the tools of builders, 
it may be supposed that houses would soon be raised to two stories, 
and increased in size and convenience. To make artificial and 
equally shaped stones, by burning clay into bricks, was a further 
invention of great importance, because it affords for building an 
universal material, as durable as stone, without the expense of 
carriage, and often with less labour than was required to dig and 
fashion the stone. The first cement for walls was either mud or 
clay; but in due time experiment led to the preference of a 
mixture of lime, sand, and water ; to which, for durable plastering, 
the hair of oxen is now added. Simple as is the contrivance of 
chimneys to carry off smoke, yet they are a recent invention, and, 
in building houses, were unknown till within the last five hundred 
years. The means of letting in light, and at the same time 
keeping out the cold, is also a recent invention. That useful 
transparency called glass was discovered by accident. Some 
Phoenician carriers of soda, happening to light their fire between 
some lumps of this mineral, it melted, and mixing with the sand, 
produced glass. Soda, with sand or flints, melted together, are 
still the materials of which glass is made. 

After the art of building had attained what was useful and ne¬ 
cessary, luxury aimed at ornament; an ingenious carpenter be¬ 
came a carver ; and an ingenious stone-mason, a sculptor. The 
five orders of architecture were successively invented in ancient 
Greece and Italy. 

The Greeks borrowed many of their arts from their Asiatic 
neighbours, who had cultivated them long before. It is highly 
probable that architecture travelled from Persia into Greece.° In 
the ruins of Shushan, Persepolis, or Tehiminar, are to be seen 
the first models of every thing that distinguishes Grecian 
architecture. There is no doubt, we suppose, among the learned, 
as to the great priority of these monuments to any thing that 
remains in Greece; especially if we take into account the 
tombs of the mountains, which have every appearance of greater 
antiquity than the remains of Persepolis. In these tombs we see 


THE ARTS. 


057 


the whole ordonnance of column and entablature, just as they 
began to deviate from their first and necessary forms in the wooden 
buildings. We have the architrave, frize, and cornice; the far 
projecting mutules of the Tuscan and Doric orders ; the modil- 
lions, no less distinct; the rudiments of the Ionic capital; the 
Corinthian capital in perfection, pointing out the verv origin of 
this ornament, viz. a number of long graceful leaves tied round 
the head of the column with a fillet: a custom which Ave knoAv was 
common in their temples and banqueting rooms. Where the 
distance between the columns Avas great, so that each had to support 
a weight too great for one tree, we see the columns clustered or 
fluted, &c. In short, Ave see ev r ery thing of the Grecian archi¬ 
tecture, but the sloped roof or pediment: a thing not Avanted in 
a country Avhere it hardly ever rains. In the stone buildings of 
the Greeks, the roofs Avere imitations of the Avooden ones ; hence 
the lintels, flying cornices, ceilings in compartments, &c. 

The ancient Egyptian architecture seems to be an improvement 
on the hut built of clay, or unburnt bricks mixed with straAv; every 
thing is massive, clumsy, and timid; small intercolumniations, 
and hardly any projections. 

The Arabian architecture seems a refinement on the tent. 
A mosque is like a large camp, consisting of a number of little 
bell-tents, stuck close together round a great one. A caravansary 
is a court surrounded by a roAv of such tents, each having its own 
dome. The Greek church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, has 
imitated this in some degree ; and the copies from it, which have 
been multiplied in Russia, as the sacred form of a Christian 
church, have adhered to the original model of clustered tents in 
the strictest manner. We are sometimes disposed to think that 
the painted glass (a fashion from the East) was an imitation of the 
painted hangings of the Arabs. 

The Chinese architecture is an evident imitation of a Avooden 
building. Sir George Staunton says, that the singular form of 
their roofs is a professed imitation of the cover of a square tent. 

The great incorporation of architects Avho built most of the 
cathedrals of Europe, departed entirely from the styles of ancient 
Gi •eece and Rome, and introduced another, in which arcades made 
the principal part. Not finding in every place quarries from which 
blocks could be raised in abundance, of sufficient size for forming 
the far-projecting cornices of the Greek orders, they relinquished 
these proportions, and adopted a style of ornament which required 
no -such projections; and having substituted arches for the hori¬ 
zontal architrave or lintel, they were able to erect buildings of 
vast extent Avith spacious openings, and all this with very small 


Co8 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 

pieces of stone. The form which had been adopted fora Christian 
temple occasioned many intersections of vaultings, and multipled 
the arches exceedingly. Constant practice afforded opportunities 
of giving all possible varieties of these intersections, and taught 
the art of balancing arch against arch, in every variety of situation. 
In a little time, arches became their principal ornament; and a 
wall or ceiling was not thought properly decorated till it was filled 
full of mock arches, crossing and butting on each other in every 
direction. In this process in their ceilings these architects found 
that the projecting mouldings, which we now call the Gothic 
tracery, formed the chief support of the roofs. The plane sur¬ 
faces included between those ribs, were commonly vaulted with 
very small stones, seldom exceeding six or eight inches in thickness. 
This tracery, therefore, was not a random ornament. Every rib 
had a position and direction that was not only proper, but even 
necessary. Habituated to this scientific arrangement of the mould¬ 
ings, they did not deviate from it when they ornamented a smooth 
surface with mock arches; and in none of the highly ornamented 
ancient buildings shall we find any false positions. This is far 
from being the case in most of the modern imitations of this 
species of architecture. 

We call the middle ages rude and barbarous, and give to their 
architecture the appellation of Gothic ; but there was surely much 
knowledge in those who could execute such magnificent and 
difficult works. 

The architects of whom we now speak do not appear to have 
studied the theory of equilibrated arches; but, for a long period, 
they adopted an arch which was very strong, and permitted con¬ 
siderable irregularities of pressure; we mean, the pointed arch. 
The very deep mouldings with which it was ornamented made 
die arch stones very long in proportion to the span of the arch. 

They had, however, with great care, studied the mutual de¬ 
pendence of arches on each other; and they contrived to make 
every invention for this purpose become an ornament, so that the 
eye required it as a necessary part of the building. Thus we 
frequently see small buildings having buttresses on the sides. 
I hese are necessary in a large vaulted building, for withstand¬ 
ing the outward thrust of the vaulting; but they are useless 
when there is a flat ceiling within. Pinnacles on the heads 
of buttresses, are now considered as ornaments ; but origi¬ 
nally they were put there to increase the weight of the but¬ 
tresses ; even the great tower in the centre of a cathedral, which 
now continues its chief ornament, is a load almost indispensably 
necessary, for enabling the four principal columns to withstand the 



THE ARTS. 


659 


combined dependences of the aisles, of the naves, and transepts. 
In short, the more closely we examine the ornaments of this 
architecture, the more shall we perceive that they are essential 
parts, or derived from them by imitation; and the more we con¬ 
sider the whole style of it, the more clearly do we see that it is all 
deduced from the relish for arcades, indulged in the extreme, and 
pushed to the limit of possibility of execution. 

From the end of the fifteenth century, this architecture began to 
decline; and was soon after supplanted by a mixed style, if we 
may venture to call it so, wherein the Grecian and Gothic, 
however discordant and irreconcilable, are jumbled together. 

The orders, as now executed by architects, are five, viz. the 
Tuscan, the Doric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, and the Composite; 
which are distinguished from each other by the column with its 
base and capital, and by the entablature. The Tuscan order is 
characterised by its plain and robust appearance, and is therefore 
used only in works where strength and plainness are wanted ; it 
has been used with great effect and elegance in that durable 
monument of ancient grandeur, the Trajan column at Rome ; in¬ 
deed, general consent has established its proportions for such 
purposes beyond all others. The Doric possesses nearly the same 
character for strength as the Tuscan, but is enlivened by its pe¬ 
culiar ornaments ; the triglyph, inutile, and guttse, or drops under 
the triglyph; these decorations characterise the Doric order, and 
in part are inseparable from it. Its proportions recommend it, 
where united strength and grandeur are wanted. The Ionic par¬ 
takes of more delicacy than either of the former, and therefore, 
as well as on account of its origin, is called feminine, and not 
improperly supposed to have a matronic appearance. It is a 
medium between the masculine Tuscan and Doric, and the vir¬ 
ginal slenderness of the Corinthian; the boldness of the capital, 
with the beauty of the shafts, makes it eligible for porticos, 
frontispieces, entrances to houses, &c. Denteles were first added 
to the cornice of this order. The Corinthian possesses more 
delicacy and ornament than any other order; the beauty and 
richness of the capital, and the delicacy of the pillar, render it the 
most suitable in those edifices where magnificence and elegance are 
required. On this account it is frequently used for the internal 
decoration of large state rooms; in which it has a chaste appear¬ 
ance, though at the same time superb. The Composite order is 
the same as the Corinthian in its proportions, and nearly alike in 
ornamental properties. The addition of the modern Ionic vohite 
to the capital, gives a bolder projection. It is applicable in the 
same manner and in the same cases as the Corinthian. 


66C 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


CHAPTER XVII. 


GOVERNMENT, LAWS, ETC. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

1 he government of Great Britain has been generally termed 
a limited monarchy. In the great framework of the constitution, 
the object professedly held in view, is to steer the middle course 
between anarchy and despotism: to maintain a just authority in 
the state, without violating the rights of the subject. According 
to a judicious writer, “ the government of England was founded on 
principles of liberty; its constitution is the work of a wise and 
brave people ; who, considering that all power was derived from 
them, and was to be subservient to their happiness, committed it 
into the hands of three states, who were to be a mutual support 
and mutual check on each other, and yet so ordered, that the in¬ 
terest of each is best promoted by each confining itself within its 
proper bounds.” 

Doubtless, the constitution of Great Britain partakes of the 
character of all human institutions. But if we were to express an 
opinion, it should be, that it is neither so perfect as to need no im¬ 
provement, nor so defective, as to require to be upturned from its 
foundation, in order to effect an amelioration. In order that our 
readers may judge for themselves, the following outline of British 
law is here introduced. The great principles are embodied in 
what is called the Declaration of Rights after the abdication of 
James II. 

The Parliament, when assembled, held that James had en¬ 
deavoured to subvert the constitution, and vacated the throne; 
but restricting their vote to the endeavour to subvert the consti¬ 
tution, they held, that the society was not broken up, but merely 
that the executive magistrate was gone; and on this principle they 
proceeded in a legal way to supply the deficiency. This was done 
by their declaration of February 12, 1688, 44 That William and 
Alary, Prince and Princess of Orange, be declared king and queen, 
&c.” Care was now taken to repair the breaches and defects in the 
constitution, as far as the limited experience of circumstances 
would permit. The lords and commons, previous to the corona¬ 
tion of King William and Queen Mary, had framed a bill, which 
contained a declaration of the rights which they claimed in behalf 


1 


GOVERNMENT, LAWS, ETC. OF GREAT BRITAIN. CGI 

of the people, and was, in consequence, called the Bill of Rights. 
This afterwards received the royal assent, and became an Act of 
Parliament, under the title of an u Act declaring the rights and 
liberties of the subject, and settling the succession of the crown.'” 

This statute declares, 1. That the pretended power of sus¬ 
pending laws, or the execution of laws, by regal authority, with¬ 
out the consent of parliament, is illegal. 2. That the pretended 
power of dispensing of laws, or the execution of laws, by regal 
authority, as it hath been assumed and exercised of late, is illegal. 
3. That the commission for erecting the late court of commis¬ 
sioners for ecclesiastical causes, and all other commissions and 
courts of a like nature, are illegal and pernicious. 4. That levy¬ 
ing money for or to the uses of the crown, by pretence of prero¬ 
gative, without grant of parliament, for longer time, or in other 
manner than the same is, or shall be granted, is illegal. 5. That 
it is the right of the subjects to petition the king; and all com¬ 
mitments and provocations for such petitioning, are illegal. 
6. That the raising or keeping up a standing army within the 
kingdom, in the time of peace, unless it be with consent of par¬ 
liament, is against law. 7. That election of members of par¬ 
liament ought to be free. 8. That the freedom of speech, and 
debates or proceedings of parliament, ought not to be impeached, 
or questioned, in any court or place out of parliament. 9. That 
excessive bail ought not to be required ; nor excessive fines im¬ 
posed ; nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 10. That 
jurors ought to be duly impanelled and returned ; and jurors which 
pass upon men in trials for high treason, ought to be freeholders. 
11. That all grants and promises of fines, and forfeitures of par¬ 
ticular persons, before conviction, are illegal and void. 12. And 
that for redress of all grievances, and for the amending, strength¬ 
ening, and preserving of the laws, parliaments ought to be held 
frequently. And they do demand, and insist upon all and sin¬ 
gular the premises, as their undoubted rights and liberties; and 
that no declarations, judgments, doings or proceedings, to the 
prejudices of the people in any of the said premises, ought in 
any wise to be drawn hereafter into consequence or example. 

The constitution, as it now exists, embraces three principal 
divisions, the legislative, judicial, and executive authority. 

The legislative authority inheres in the parliament of 
the realm. This august body consists of the king’s majesty, 
sitting there in his royal political capacity; and the other estates 
\>f the realm, the lords spiritual and temporal, who sit together, 
Vith the king, in one house; and the commons, who sit by them¬ 
selves in another. The king and three estates together form a 


G62 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


great corporation, or body politic of the kingdom, ol which the 
king is said to be caput, principium, et finis. For upon their 
coming together, the king meets them in person, or by represen¬ 
tation,^without which there can be no beginning of a parliament. 
To prevent any encroachments on the royal prerogative, the king 
is a part of the legislature, and has the power of rejecting, rather 
than of resolving, as being sufficient to answer the end proposed. 
The crown cannot of itself begin any alteration in the established 
law; but it may approve or disapprove of alterations suggested 
and consented to by the two houses. The two other branches of 
the legislature, therefore, cannot abridge the executive of any of 
its rights, without its own consent; for the law must remain per¬ 
petually as it now is, unless all the states comprehended in the 
legislature agree to the alteration. In the legislature, the people 
are a check upon the nobility, and the nobles upon the people, by 
the mutual power possessed by each ot rejecting what the other 
has resolved ; and the king has a check upon both, by putting a 
negative upon their resolutions. The spiritual lords consist of 
two archbishops and twenty-four bishops. All these hold, or are 
supposed to hold, certain baronies under the king. These lords 
spiritual are, in the eye of the law, a distinct order from the lords 
temporal, and they are specifically mentioned as distinct, in the 
statutes of the realm; but in practice, they are usually compre¬ 
hended under the title of the lords. The lords temporal consist 
of all the English peers, with a certain number elected by the 
whole body of the Scotch, and also of the Irish nobles, as repre¬ 
sentatives of that order in each of those nations; and finally, 
the twelve judges sit in the house of peers, ex-officio, during life. 
The number of temporal lords is indefinite, as it may be increased 
at the king’s pleasure. 

The constituent principle of the house of commons is, that in a 
free state, every citizen should have a vote in the affairs of govern¬ 
ment. In small states, this is best attained by the individual 
acting in his own person ; but this is impracticable in a large com¬ 
munity. In such a state as Britain, it is manifestly impossible; 
and therefore, that which cannot be attained by the personal act 
of every member, must be compassed by representation, and this 
again must be attained by election. The counties are in England 
represented by knights, elected by the proprietors of lands, the 
qualifications for which was, formerly, to be possessed of a free¬ 
hold of forty shillings a year, in the county for which the member 
was to be elected. By the Reform Act the qualification required 
is a freeholder of not less than 10/. per annum, and with some 
limitations is extended to copyhold and leasehold property. 



GOVF,RXM ENT, LAWS, 


ETC. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 


6G3 


The cities anti boroughs, supposed to comprehend the trading and 
mercantile part of the community, are represented by citizens 
and burgesses, who are elected by freemen and rate-payers, of 
those particular places. 

r Ihe judicial authority is maintained by various courts of 
law, with their respective jurisdictions. The principal of these 
are the following: 

The Court of Common Pleas.—All personal pleas between one 
man and another are determined in this court, but they are also 
cognizable by the King's Bench. 

The Court of King's Bench.—All pleas between the king and 
the subject are brought into this court: as treasons, felonies, 
breach of the peace, and any kind of oppression. 

The Courts of Assize and Nisi Prius are derived out of, and 
act as collateral auxiliaries to those before mentioned. 

The High Court of Chancery is designed to relieve the subject 
against cheats, breaches of trust, invasions of its own patents, 
grants, &c., and other oppressions, for which no other court can 
provide a remedy. The forms of proceeding in this court is, by 
bills, answers, and decrees. 

Trial by jury is used both in civil and criminal cases. It is 
the province of the sheriff to return a jury, consisting of not less 
than forty-eight persons, nor more than seventy-two, so that out 
of them, twelve may be chosen to give a verdict upon the cause. 
In criminal causes, the prisoner is in law supposed to be innocent 
until he is convicted. To enable him the better to set up his de¬ 
fence, and prove his innocence, he is furnished with a copy of the 
indictment; and that he may be enabled to ascertain the cha¬ 
racters and ability of the jurors who are to try him, and to know 
whether they have any personal prejudice against him, he is to be 
furnished with the panel, or list of their names and residences. 
When brought to the bar on a charge of felony, he may peremp¬ 
torily, in open court, challenge twenty of the number, without 
assigning any reason, and as many more as he can urge a reason¬ 
able objection to, until at length twelve unexceptionable men of 
his neighbourhood are selected. In cases of treason, the accused 
may challenge to the number of thirty-five, instead of twenty, 
without showing cause, besides as many more as he can show suf¬ 
ficient cause against. 

The supreme executive power of these kingdoms is en¬ 
trusted to the sovereign, whether king or queen. It is a grand fun¬ 
damental axiom, upon which the jus coronas , or right of succession 
to the crown of Great Britain, depends, u that the crown is by 
common law and constitutional custom hereditary, and this in a 


G64- YOUNG man’s companion. 

manner peculiar to itself; but that the right of inheritance from 
time to time may be changed, or limited by Act of Parliament, 
under which limitations the crown still continues hereditary.” 
The laws having constituted the right of succession hereditaiy, 
have vested in the crowned head great authority over other 
branches of the royal family, particularly those whose marriages 
might affect the succession ; and therefore by statute 1 % Geo. III. 
c. 2, no descendant of the body of George II., other than the 
issue of princesses married into foreign families, is capable of com 
tracting matrimony, without the previous consent of the king,, 
signified under the great seal; and any marriage contracted with¬ 
out such consent is void. But it is provided, that such of the 
said descendants of George II. as are above the age of twenty-five, 
may, after a twelvemonth’s notice given to the king’s privy 
council, contract and solemnize marriage without the consent of the 
crown, unless both houses of parliament shall, before the expiration 
of the said year, expressly declare their disapprobation of such 
marriage. It is further the privilege of the sovereign, to have a 
great number of counsellors, for, “in the multitude of counsellors 
there is wisdom.” Of this description is the great council of par¬ 
liament ; and also the peers of the realm in council, when no 
parliament is assembled. 

But the advisers of the royal person, chiefly, are his privy 
council. This Sir Edward Coke describes as a noble, honour¬ 
able, and reverend assembly of the king; and such as he wills to 
be of his privy council in the king’s court or palace. The oath 
of a privy counsellor consists of seven articles, expressive of his 
duties. 1. To advise the king according to the best of his cun¬ 
ning and discretion. 2. To advise for the king’s honour and 
the good of the public, without partiality through affection, love, 
need, doubt, or dread. 8. To keep the king’s counsel secret. 
4. To avoid corruption. 5. To help and strengthen the execution 
of what shall be there resolved. 6. To withstand all persons who 
would attempt the contrary. And lastly, in general, 7. To ob¬ 
serve, keep, and do all that a good and true counsellor ought to 
do to his sovereign lord. The authority of the privy council is in 
many subjects very great; they have power to issue a warrant to 
bring persons before them on any inquiry into offences against 
the government, and may commit offenders to safe custody to 
take their trial ; but in this case, also, the legislature has been so 
jealous over the liberty of the people, that a person committed 
by the privy council may have his habeas corpus, by statute 
lb Car. I. c. 10. The existence of this council depends entirely 
upon the will of the sovereign ; he may dismiss any member 


GOVERNMENT, LAWS, ETC. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 665 

at his pleasure, or lie may dissolve the whole body, and appoint 
another. * 

On the death of the reigning prince, the next heir immediately 
succeeds to the crown, and is ipso facto the sovereign ; so that it 
is held the king never dies, or rather, the regal office is never un¬ 
occupied, and therefore, by such an event, no vacancy of the 
throne occurs. 

From the preceding observations, it appears that the king of 
England is invested with great powers, but these can only be 
supported by a sufficient supply of money; and the represen¬ 
tatives of the people, by reserving to themselves the right of 
taxation, have taken the most effectual measures to prevent the 
arbitrary exercise of the royal prerogative. The people have, 
therefore, in that single privilege of granting or refusing supplies 
to the crown, reserved a power which will enable them to maintain 
the integrity of the constitution, as it enabled their ancestors to 
obtain its establishment. The king, though endowed with such 
high attributes, has scarcely any revenue but by grant of the people. 

But it is further observable, that other barriers are established 
to guard against any sudden usurpations on the part of the crown, 
and to afford the people an opportunity of obtaining constitutional 
redress. A free press is one of the most formidable weapons that 
can be wielded against despotic governments; but especially in a 
state where every man boasts of the freedom of the constitution 
under which he lives, the press is an engine of immense power. 
The liberty of the press does not consist in any one being able 
to publish any thing he pleases with impunity, but in being at 
liberty to publish whatsoever he pleases, merely subject after¬ 
wards to judicial investigation by a jury, upon the principles we 
have already specified. 

The right of petitioning is another support of public liberty, 
which is now held to be the right of inheritance bv birth of every 
Briton. It is indeed subjected to some limitations, but still these 
are rather of a nature to preserve the public tranquillity than to 
endanger the constitution. 

It is held as a grand principle of the constitution, that par¬ 
liament should be often assembled ; and if assembled, they will, 
it is presumed, be sufficient restraint upon any unconstitutional 
measures adopted by the ministers of the crown. But it is pos¬ 
sible, that a minister determined to carry every thing with a high 
hand, or fearing parliamentary investigation of certain parts of 
his administration, might persuade his sovereign to dispense with 
the use of parliaments. This indeed cannot be done constitu- 
tionallv for any length of time, as the statute 6 W. and M. c. 2, 

4 Q 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


666 

enacts, that a new parliament shall be called within three years 
from the expiration of the former. 

And, finally, another security for personal liberty consists in 
the subjection of the military force to the civil authorities, in all 
cases of riot and public breach of the peace, except open rebellion, 
and consequent proclamation of martial law. 

On a review of the constitutional authorities of this kingdom, 
one question of vital importance presents itself for our consider¬ 
ation. By what means is the state most endangered ? and con¬ 
sequently, what object should be contemplated with the greatest 
degree of jealousy, by all the friends of constitutional rights ? 
On this subject we cannot hesitate long. We have no great ap • 
prehensions, in the present state of things, of any direct and 
flagrant abuse of a standing army, or of the subversion of trial by 
jury; much less of the disuse of parliaments. It is in the im¬ 
mense increase of the revenue, and the vast patronage consequent 
upon that increase, placed in the hands of the sovereign, that the 
principal danger consists. The numerous places that are the gift 
of the executive, and the vast salaries paid to so many persons, 
must necessarily give that department of the state an immensely 
preponderating influence. It insinuates itself into both houses 
of parliament; and before the Reform Act, produced a very 
serious monopoly of the small boroughs which returned members. 

By that memorable statute, besides other important enactments, 
fifty-six of those boroughs, which had been a source of corruption 
for ages, were entirely disenfranchised; thirty which had before 
sent to parliament two members, had their return reduced to one 
member; forty-two new boroughs were constituted, twenty-two 
of which return two, and twenty return one member. By this 
equalization of the representation, asjvell as by the more popular 
character of the elective franchise in many respects, the power of 
the ministers of the crown to act in opposition to the voice of 
the people, is materially limited. The beneficial effects of this 
measure have been felt by the passing of many enactments 
favourable to the cause of equity, justice, and economy of the 
public expenditure, which would probably, under the former state 
of things, have never been carried. And although the friends of 
equal representation consider that they have many just grounds 
of complaint in the present working of the system, either for 
want of further legislative enactions, or from the imperfect and 
partial enforcement, in many instances, of the present laws, yet 
it is admitted, that many valuable improvements have been ef¬ 
fected in the details of the British constitution, and (m the opinion 
of a large majority of the British people) without underminiim 
those great principles on which it is based. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


667 


CHAPTER XVIII 

CHRISTIANITY. 


Among the various systems of religion, Christianity, or the 
religion taught by Jesus Christ, stands pre-eminent; as the last 
and most perfect dispensation of divine truth, and that by which 
all who have been made acquainted with it, must finally be judged. 
In the early ages of the world, the Divine Being made himself 
known to man, as we are informed in the Scriptures, “ at sundry 
times and in divers manners.” But all the previous revelations 
had reference to Christ as the future Messiah. These words are 
of similar import. Messiah is a Hebrew word ; and hence in the 
Old Testament we never read of Christ, that being the Greek 
word for the same person. Both Messiah and Christ signify 
anointed. Hence it is said, John i. 41, “ We have found the 
Messiah, which is, being interpreted, the Christ.” 

This glorious personage made his advent into the world about 
4000, or 4004 years after the creation ; and it appears suitable, 
in giving an account of the religion which he promulgated, first 
to take notice of some leading circumstances connected with his 
advent. Many predictions had been uttered concerning him, not 
only ages, but even thousands of years before he appeared; and 
these at the time of his birth and ministry, were in the possession 
of the most inveterate enemies. Those prophecies described his 
sufferings, death, and resurrection ; and foretold the astonishing 
success of his religion in the world. At the time that the govern¬ 
ment was “ departing from Judah, and the lawgivers from between 
his feet,” Gen. xlix. 10; and when the 490 years were fulfilled, 
which were spoken of to Daniel by the angel Gabriel, Dan. ix. 24 ; 
the Son of God, who was in the bosom of the Father, made his ap¬ 
pearance. Previous to this period there had been a great shaking 
among the nations, by the subversion of the Persian and Grecian 
empires, and the establishment of the Roman upon their ruins. 
At this time, the second temple was in its glory; a general ex¬ 
pectation prevailed among the Jews, from the prophecies they 
possessed, that their Messiah would shortly come ; and among 


668 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


heathen nations, an alarming rumour had been circulated of a Jev 
who should arise to subdue and govern the world. Under these 
circumstances of general and anxious expectation Christ came. 
After being in a public way baptized with water, and on that 
occasion also baptized with the Holy Ghost, as a means of anoint¬ 
ing him to the office of a public teacher, he continued to instruct 
his countrymen for about the term of three years and a half, at 
the expiration of which time he was crucified ; but, notwithstand¬ 
ing this effort of his enemies to destroy him, he arose on the third 
day after his death and burial, and appeared unto many persons; 
and eventually, after repeated appearances during about six weeks, 
he ascended up into heaven in the full view of his disciples: “ Go 
ye, therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of 
the Father, and the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; teaching them 
to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you ; and, 
lo, I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world.” From 
this commission, therefore, we must date the rise of the Christian 
religion. 

At the time when Christ appeared, the Jews were governed by 
Herod the Great, under the authority of Augustus Csesar. By 
Herod, luxury and vice were introduced among the Jewish nation, 
until the whole body of the people were corrupted to a high 
degree of licentiousness ; and those degrading habits tended to 
render them an easy prey to his cruel practices, unjust exactions, 
and imperious disposition. Judea, through this whole reign, groaned 
under the combined influence of profligacy, among all ranks of 
the community, and the vilest tyranny on the part of the govern¬ 
ment. On the death of Herod the Great, his kingdom was 
divided among his sons; half of it was given to Archelaus, with 
the title of Exarch; but this prince was so corrupt, that even the 
Jews and Samaritans united in a petition against him to the Ro¬ 
man emperor, Augustus Csesar, from whom he had received the 
government, and who on this application, after hearing the cause, 
banished Archelaus from his dominions, and reduced Judea to a 
Roman province. About the sixteenth year of Jesus Christ, 
Pontius Pilate was appointed governor of Judea. Under him 
Christ was crucified; and in about seven years after that me* 
moiable transaction, Pilate was recalled by the Roman emperor, 
and sent into exile for his crimes. The Jews were at this time in 
a most degraded state of civil bondage. The whole nation suf¬ 
fered much from the presence of the idolatrous Romans, con¬ 
stantly among them ; and the exactions of the publicans became 
most oppressive and intolerable. But to aggravate their circum¬ 
stances still more, their own rulers greatly contriDutea to their 


CHRISTIANITY". 


669 


calamities; for having purchased their offices in the priesthood, or 
their seats in the sanhedrim, by bribes or other acts of gross cur- 
ruption, they maintained their authority by the most abominable 
crimes, and remunerated themselves by unjust exactions on the 
body of the people. By these means iniquity spread like an 
overwhelming flood over the whole land ; private extortions became 
common; immense gangs of robbers were formed, which even the 
force of the government was scarcely able to restrain or subdue ; 
and iniquity of every kind increased to such a height, that any 
serious observer of the state of the nation might have perceived, 
several years before the great rebellion of the Jewish nation against 
the Roman power and their consequent subversion, that the 
government and whole community were verging fast to destruction. 

Various sects at this time existed among the Jews; but the 
four principal were the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and 
Herodians. 

The Pharisees arose, it is supposed, about 150 years before the 
birth of Christ. They denominated themselves Pharisees, or se¬ 
paratists, as distinguishing themselves from others, by a profession 
of great strictness and sanctity. But this denomination, although 
it involved separation from the other descendants of Abraham, 
as well as from the heathen, consisted chiefly of distinctions 
respecting food, ceremonies, and the mere externals of religion. 
This sect had rendered themselves extremely popular by their pre¬ 
tensions to sanctity, and especially by uniting with those preten¬ 
sions a considerable share of Jewish learning. 

The Sadducees derived their name from Zadoc, or Sadoc, who 
flourished about a. c. 280. His master Antigonus taught, that 
our service of God should be perfectly disinterested, and resulting 
from pure love to God, and, consequently, quite irrespective of 
future rewards or punishments. Zadoc on this ground assumed, 
that there were no such rewards nor punishments. The followers 
of this teacher asserted, that God is the only immaterial being; 
that there is no created angel or spirit; and that there will not be 
any resurrection of the body. They rejected all traditions ; ad¬ 
hered closely to the text of the sacred books ; but, in common with 
the other Jews, preferred the five books of Moses to all the other 
inspired writings. 

The Essenes are supposed to have arisen soon after the dis¬ 
persion of the Jews occasioned by the Babylonish captivity. 
They maintained, that rewards and punishments extended to the 
spirit only ; and considered the body as a mass of malignant 
matter, merely the prison of the immortal mind. In many re¬ 
spects they appear to have been little else than a description o! 


670 


YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 


rigid Pharisees, who lived in a wav not very dissimilar from the 
monks of the Romish church. 

The last principal sect among the Jewish people were the 
Herodians. M. Simon, in his notes on Matthew, chap, xxii., 
considers this sect to have been such as adhered to the party and 
interest of Herod, and endeavoured to maintain the succession to 
the crown in his family. Dr. Prideaux was of opinion, that they 
were distinguished from other Jews, by their concurrence with 
Herod the Great, in his scheme of subjecting the nation to the 
will of the Romans, not excepting conformity to many of their- 
idolatrous customs. This symbolizing with heathenism upon 
views of worldly policy, probably, was that “ leaven of Herod,” 
against which Jesus Christ cautioned his disciples. Herod seems 
to have formed this sect to keep him in countenance, in many of 
his heathenish practices, and accommodating submission to Roman 
influence. 

Having briefly stated the religious sectarian denominations of 
the Jews, we proceed to notice a few of the prominent features of 
the state of the heathen world at the period of Christ's advent, 
and more especially of the apostle's mission. The Roman mon¬ 
archy had, at that time, risen to an astonishing height of pow r er 
and splendour, so that it w r as called from the extent of dominion,- the 
world , and all the world. Judea was subjugated by this power 
about seventy years before the Christian era ; and the Jewish rulers 
from that time acknowledged their dependence upon a heathen 
government. The Roman monarchy still continued to extend its 
conquests, and about the time of Christ's birth had, according to 
the prediction of Daniel, “ trodden down all other kingdoms of 
the earth, and devoured them.” But while the Romans subju¬ 
gated the nations of Europe and Asia Minor, the detail of which 
the reader may consult at his leisure in the first chapter of 
Gibbon's Roman Empire, they united them under one general 
description of government, civilized them, introduced among 
them the arts, and widely circulated the knowledge of the Latin 
tongue. By these means, when the disciples of Jesus Christ 
began to preach, the providence of God, which had ever since the 
creation been preparing for the disclosure of the august personage, 
denominated Wonderful, Counsellor, the mighty God, the ever¬ 
lasting Father, the Prince of Peace, now furnished numerous 
facilities for promulgating in very distant regions those truths 
which otherwise might not have reached them for many generations. 
The Augustan age, in which Christ appeared, is universally ac¬ 
knowledged to have been the most learned and polite the world 
ever saw; and vet while the love of literature seemed to be 


CHRISTIANITY. 


G71 


almost an universal passion, superstition and idolatry, under their 
grossest forms, blinded and fettered the human mind. Each na¬ 
tion had its own gods, over which one was understood to preside ; 
the number of deities was augmented to an immense amount; 
and the rites by which they were worshipped were not only super¬ 
stitious, but barbarous, and often obscene. 

The Roman and the eastern idolaters differed in a variety of 
points, and probably those of the uncivilized regions of the earth still 
more. 1'he prophetic language of Isaiah seemed now to be fully 
verified, especially taken in connexion with the birth and ministry 
of Jesus Christ, and the mission of the apostles; “Behold the 
darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the people ; 
but the Lord shall arise upon thee, and his glory shall be seen 
upon thee. And the Gentiles shall come to thy light, and kings 
to the brightness of thy rising.’ 1 “ The noblest people, 11 says 
l)r. Robertson, “that ever entered upon the stage of the world, 
appear to have been only instruments in the divine hand for the 
execution of wise purposes concealed from themselves. The 
Roman ambition and bravery paved the way, and prepared the 
world, for the reception of the Christian doctrine. They fought 
and conquered, that it might triumph with the greater ease, Isaiah 
x. 5—7. By means of their victories, the overruling providence 
of God established an empire which really possesses that per¬ 
petuity and eternal duration, which they vainly arrogated to their 
own. He erected a throne which should continue for ever, and 
of the “ increase of that government there shall be no end. 11 

The philosophy of the heathen world at this important period, 
was of two kinds. The one seems to have taken its rise among 
-the Grecian states, and probably in the very early periods of their 
history, of which we have no authentic information. This, which 
has generally been called the Grecian 'philosophy , was adopted from 
them by the Romans, and became very prevalent through the 
whole Roman empire. At this period, the worship of the gods 
of the conquered provinces was very fully tolerated. The other 
description of philosophy, which prevailed chiefly in Persia, Syria, 
Chaldea, and Egypt, was called science, or> knowledge, and has 
generally been known by the name of the oriental philosophy. 
Both descriptions of philosophers were subdivided into many 
different sects. 

Among the Grecians, we notice six as most eminent. 1. The 
Platonic, the essence of which was, that there is one God, an 
eternal, immutable, and immaterial being, perfect in wisdom and 
goodness, omniscient, and omnipresent. 2. The Aristotelian, or 
Stagirite. The author of this philosophy was born about 


672 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


а. c. 384. He believed the universe to have existed from 
eternity, but still acknowledged a Deity, whom he denominated the 
first mover. But he supposed, that this being dwelt in some first 
sphere of the universe, and was so happy in his own contempla¬ 
tions, as to have no respect to human affairs. 3. The Stoical. 
This sect was founded by Zeno, a Cyprian. He taught, that 
God actuates all things as a kind of soul to the universe; that all 
men have naturally some seeds of knowledge; that wisdom alone 
makes men happy; and that pain, poverty, and the various afflic¬ 
tions of life, are but supposititious evils ; and finally, that a wise 
man ought not to be affected with the passions either of joy or 
grief. 4. The Epicurean. Their founder flourished about a. m. 
S'] 00. The principles he inculcated seem to have been chiefly 
that the world came into form quite irrespective of any divine 
agency, and merely by a fortuitous combination of atoms; that 
there is no providence ; that the soul is not immortal, nor are 
there any spiritual beings, as angels ; and that happiness consists in 
the tranquillity of the mind, arising from the practice of some 
moral virtue. 5. The Sceptical. They were also denominated the 
Pyrrhonic sect, from their teacher Pyrrho, a Grecian philosopher. 
These endeavoured rather to destroy other systems than erect one 
of their own. They professed to assert nothing, but to remain in 
doubt on every subject, as though truth were no where attainable. 

б. The Eclectic. This sect was founded by Potamon of Alex¬ 
andria. They were weary of doubting every thing as taught in 
the schools of scepticism. They held, that the mind of man is 
originally a portion of the divine, but being fallen into a state of 
darknesss and defilement by its union with the body, it must be 
emancipated from the fetters of matter, and rise to the knowledge 
and vision of God by contemplation ; that the object of philosophy 
is to liberate the soul from its corporeal imprisonment; and, that 
this is greatly to be effected by abstinence, mortification of the 
flesh, and religious duties. 

The oriental philosophy was perhaps yet more widely diffused 
than the Grecian. This description of philosophy was highly 
popular at the time of Christ’s ministry; and most unhappily was 
blended with Christianity, by many professed converts to the latter 
faith, as it had been previously with Judaism, by the degraded 
sons of Abraham. Oriental philosophy professed to explain the 
origin and properties of all things, by the principle of emanation 
from an eternal fountain of being. .Zoroaster, the ancient Persian 
philosopher, is said to have systematized the leading doctrines 
deduced from this fundamental principle; but it is probable all 
his notions were primarily derived from revelation, through the 


CHRISTIANITY 


678 


medium of the Jews. He maintained, that spirit and matter, light 
and darkness, are emanations from one eternal source, and that 
there are two principles, the one active, the other passive, which 
are perpetually at variance; the one teaching to good, and the 
other, to evil; but that, through the influence of the eternal 
Supreme Being, the contest will eventually terminate in favour of 
the good principle. According to the oriental philosophy, a vast 
variety of orders of spiritual beings, both gods and demons, have 
proceeded from the Deity, which are more or less perfect, as they 
are at a greater or less distance in the course of emanation from the 
eternal fountain of being and intelligence ; they maintain that the 
soul of man is a spark of divine emanation ; and that matter is 
the last and most distant creature in the process of emanation. 
On these general principles, a variety of others of a minor de¬ 
scription were founded ; upon these, therefore, as so many data, 
the oriental, as well as Grecian philosophy, was divided into 
numerous sects. The Gnostic sects, which were so numerous in 
the first ages of the Christian church, are to be traced chiefly to 
the oriental philosophy. Other sects were formed by attempting 
to blend Judaism with Christianity; and many more by the pro¬ 
fessed conversion of the disciples of the Greek and Roman schools 
to the faith of Christ; and their laboured efforts to accommodate 
their newly-received principles to those of their old philosophy. 

After this hasty glance at those religions which Christianity was 
intended to supersede, we are desirous of leading the attention of 
the reader to the constituent principles of that faith “ which at 
the first began to be spoken by the Lord, and was confirmed unto 
-us by them that heard him, God bearing them witness both with 
signs and wonders, and with divers miracles, and gifts of the Holy 
Ghost, according to his own will.” 

Christianity teaches:—1. That the Scriptures of the Old and 
New Testament were “ given by inspiration of God,” 2 Tim. iii. 
16. That “ holy men of God spake as they were moved by the 
Holy Ghost,” 2 Pet. i. 21. That they are “profitable for doc¬ 
trine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness, 
that the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto 
all good works,” 2 Tim. iii. 16. 

2. That “ there is one God,” 1 Tim. ii. 5, “ who is a spirit,” John 
iv. 24. That this God is “ the Father of all, above all, through 
all, and in all,” Eph. iv. 6. That “ there are three that bear record 
in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost; and these 
three are one,” 1 John v. 7. That Christ is “the only-begotten 
Son of God,” John iii. 18. That he is called the Logos , or Word ; 
and “ in the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, 


YOUNG .MAN’S COMPANION. 


674 

and the Word was God; all tilings were made by him, and with¬ 
out him was not any thing made that was made,” John i. 1—3 ; 
that he is “ the brightness of the Father’s glory, and the express 
image of his person,” Heb. i. 3; and “‘ that the Holy Ghost is 
the eternal Spirit,” Heb. ix. 14. 

3. That “ God made man in his own image,” Gen. i. 27 ; that 
“ by one man’s disobedience many were made sinners, as sin en¬ 
tered into the world, and death by sin ; and so death passed upon 
all men, for that all have sinned, Rom. v. 12; and that “ the wrath 
of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and un¬ 
righteousness of men,” Rom. i. 18. 

4. That the mercy of God has been expressed in the exhibition 
of a Saviour, for “when the fulness of time was come, God sent 
forth his Son, made of a woman, made under the law, to redeem 
them that were under the law, that we might receive the adoption 
of sons,” Gal. iv. 4, 5 ; that “ God sent not his Son into the world 
to condemn the world, but that the world through him might be 
saved,” John iii. 16, 17; that Christ “bore our sins in his own 
body on the tree,” 1 Peter ii. 24; and so “suffered the just for 
the unjust, that he might bring us to God. 

5. That “ except a man be born again, lie cannot see the king¬ 
dom of God,” for “ that which is born of the flesh is flesh, and that 
which is born of the spirit is spirit,” John iii. 6 ; that “ if any man 
be in Christ he is a new creature; old things are passed away, be¬ 
hold, all things are become new,” 2 Cor. v. 17. That Christians 
shall be “ sanctified wholly, and their whole spirit, soul and body, 
be preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ,” 
1 Tliess. v. 23, in order that they “ may walk worthy of the Lord 
unto all pleasing, being fruitful in every good work, and increasing 
in the knowledge of God,” Col. i. 10. 

6. That “ by the law is the knowledge of sin,” Rom. iii., 20 ; and 
“ the law was our schoolmaster,” Gal. iii. 26; that, therefore, 
“ by the deeds of the law, there shall no flesh be justified in the 
sight of God,” Rom. iii. 20, for we are “justified freely by his 
grace, through the redemption that is in Jesus Christ,” Rom. iii. 24. 

7. That as Christ is “ the shepherd and bishop of souls,” 1 Pet. 
ii. 25, “ his sheep shall never perish, neither shall any pluck them 
out of his hands,” John x. 28 ; for “ he that hath begun a good 
work in us will perform it unto the day of Jesus Christ,” Phil. i. 
6 ; and, therefore, that “we are kept by the power of God through 
faith unto salvation,” 1 Pet. i. 5. 

8. That “ the dead shall be raised,” 1 Cor. xv. 52, for “ Christ 
being raised is become the first-fruits of them that slept,’ 1 Cor. 
xv. 20; and that hence “ the apostles preached through Jesus the 


CHRISTIANITY. 


675 


resurrection of tlie dead,’ 1 Acts iv. 2. That, “as it is appointed 
unto men once to die, and after this the judgment, 1 ’ Heb. ix. 27, 
so, therefore, “ we must all appear before the judgment-seat of 
Christ, that every one may receive the things done in the body, 
according to that he hath done, whether it be good or bad, 11 
2 Cor. v. 10; and the wicked “shall go away into everlasting 
punishment, but the righteous into life eternal, 11 Matt. xxv. 46. 

9. That Jesus Christ has ordained two sacraments in his 
church, namely, Baptism, and the Lord's Supper; for after his 
resurrection he “ came and spake unto them (viz. the eleven 
apostles), saying, All power is given unto me in heaven and in 
earth. • Go ye, therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them 
in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
Ghost; teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have 
commanded you; and lo, I am with you alway, even unto the 
end of the world,” Matt, xxviii. 18—20. And in reference to 
the eucharist, we read, “the Lord Jesus, the same night in which 
he was betrayed, took bread; and when he had given thanks he 
brake it, and said, Take, eat; this is my body, which is broken 
for you: this do in remembrance of me. After the same manner 
also he took the cup, when he had supped, saying, This cup is 
the New Testament in my blood ; this do ye, as oft as ye drink it, 
in remembrance of me. For as often as ye eat this bread, and 
drink this cup, ye do show forth the Lord’s death till he come, 11 
1 Cor. xi. 28—26. 

10. That “ the saints are the church of the living God, 11 1 Tim. 
iii. 15; and that “such should not forsake the assembling of 
themselves together,” Heb. x. 25 ; that they should be found 
in the exercise of “ prayer and supplication, with thanksgiving,” 
Phil. iv. 6. That they should “ love one another with a pure 
heart fervently, 11 1 Peter i. 22; and should “ bear one another’s 
burdens, and so fulfil the law of Christ,” Gal. vi. 2, who said, 
“ This is my commandment, that ye love one another as I have 
loved you,” John xv. 12. 

11. That Christians should “consider one another, to provoke 
unto love and to good works,” Heb. x. 24. That we should “ give 
to him that needeth,” Eph. iv. 28; “ not grudgingly, nor of ne¬ 
cessity, knowing that God loveth a cheerful giver,” Heb. ix. 7 ; 
and, as we have opportunity, to “ do good unto all men, especially 
unto them who are of the household of faith,” Heb. vi. 10. That 
“ we should be ready to every good work, speak evil of no man, 
be no brawlers,” Titus iii. 1; but be “ gentle unto all men, apt 
to teach, patient in meekness, instructing those that oppose 
themselves, if God peradventure will give them repentance to the 


676 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 

acknowledging of the truth; and that they may recover themselves 
out of the snare of the devil, who are taken captive by him at 
his will,” 2 Tim. ii. 24< — 26. That “supplications, prayers, in¬ 
tercessions, and giving of thanks, should be made for all men, for 
kings, and for all that are in authority,” 1 Tim. ii. 1, 2. That 
“ we should be subject to the higher powers,” Rom. xiii. 1 ; should 
“ honour the king,” 1 Peter ii. 17 ; “ obey magistrates,” Titus iii. 
1; and “ lead quiet and peaceable lives, in all godliness and 
honesty,” 1 Tim. ii. 2 ; “ waiting for the coming of our Lord 
Jesus Christ, who shall confirm us unto the end, that we may be 
blameless in the day of our Lord Jesus Christ,” 1 Cor. i. 7, 8. 

Finally, Christianity pronounces the following benedictions: 
“ Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of 
heaven. Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted. 
Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth. Blessed 
are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness, for they 
shall be filled. Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain 
mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God. 
Blessed are the peace-makers, for they shall be called the children 
of God. Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness’ 
sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are ye when 
men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner 
of evil against you falsely for my sake. Rejoice, and be ex¬ 
ceeding glad, for great is your reward in heaven ; for so persecuted 
they the prophets which were before you,” Matt. v. 3— 12. 

It is possible that a belief of these truths, striking and mo¬ 
mentous as they are, may float loosely in the understanding, with¬ 
out being efficacious. But they are exquisitely formed to affect 
us deeply; and whenever the secret links, which connect the un¬ 
derstanding and the heart, are acted upon by the mysterious energy 
of him “ who knoweth our frame,” and all its hidden springs, this 
belief leads to that saving change which is called conversion. 
Then he who is the subject of it becomes “ a new creature ; old 
things are passed away, behold, all things become new.” He has 
new apprehensions of things, new hopes, new fears, new joys, new 
affections, new employments, new prospects; he feels a perfect 
renovation of character; and his greatest solicitude is to be a 
“ fellow-worker with God, and a fellow-heir with the saints.” 

The Christian religion, as portrayed in the Gospel, differs from 
all others, in furnishing an internal principle from which the purest 
conduct emanates. It is not a religion of forms and ceremonies, 
but the religion of the heart. The language of God to every 
Christian is, “ My son, give me thine heart.” The true Christian, 
as depicted in the New Testament, is a faithful and active servant, 


CHRISTIANITY'. 


677 


who inquires what his Lord’s will is, and performs it with cheerful 
alacrity. He considers it his duty, and finds it his delight, to 
please God, and render as far as possible his fellow creatures happy ; 
to “ add to his faith, virtue; and to virtue, knowledge; and to 
knowledge, temperance; and to temperance, patience; and to 
patience, godliness ; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to 
brotherly kindness, charityStill he walks as on the confines of 
the eternal world, and is anxious, therefore, to be “ dead unto the 
world, 11 and “ alive unto God j 11 to attain more and more of the 
divine image; u to grow up to Christ in all things; 1 ’ to enjoy 
“ fellowship with God ; 11 and, if he be risen with Christ, “ to seek 
those things which are above, where Christ sitteth at the right 
hand of God. 11 

Such are the dispositions and the employments which are re¬ 
quired to be exemplified in the sincere Christian. He is exhorted 
to flee from a contrary temper and conduct, by the assurance that 
“ the wrath of God abideth 11 on all those who reject the offers of 
the Gospel; and he is stimulated to persevere in the Christian 
course, by the assurance that heaven is the inheritance of every 
sincere and humble follower of Jesus. He lives under the per¬ 
suasion that, after he has passed through the “ valley of the 
shadow of death, 1 ’ God will wipe away all tears from his eyes, and he 
will be no more exposed to pain or sorrow, to mourning or death. 
He believes that his spirit will be united to his glorified body in 
those delightful regions, where an enemy shall never enter, and 
from whence a friend shall never depart; where there will be 
satiety without disgust, day and no night, joy and no weeping, 
difference in degree and yet all full, “ love without dissimulation, 11 
excellency without envy, multitudes without confusion, harmony 
without discord; where the understanding shall be astonishingly 
enriched, the will perfectly satisfied, the affections all transformed 
into love and joy; where “ the Lamb, who is in the midst of the 
throne, shall feed him, and lead him unto living fountains of 
waters where God shall be the light and the glory of the place 
for ever and ever ! 

These, in brief, are the doctrines of the New Testament—the 
“ fruits of the Spirit,’ 1 manifested in those who believe ; and the 
glorious expectations of a future world, which are intended at 
once to stimulate and to reward “ a patient continuance in well¬ 
doing.’ 1 

Religious Sects. 

The different seels or denominations of Christians may, for the 
sake of perspicuity, be thus classified :—1. Into sects whose 


678 


YOUNG MAN S COMPANION. 


chief distinction is derived from doctrinal sentiments. 2. From 
the form of churcli government. 3. Miscellaneous sects, the 
distinctions of which are taken from both the above, conjointly, 
and connected with various other peculiarities. We can only 
notice the principal. 

I. Sects whose primary distinction is taken from their doctrinal 
sentiments. 

Trinitarians .—The believers of the doctrine of a Trinity, as 
generally understood to consist of three distinct and separate per¬ 
sons in one undivided Godhead—the Father, the Son, and the 
Holy Ghost. The word Trinity, from which they are named, is 
not to be found in the Bible, but is a scholastic term, derived from 
the Latin word trinitas , denoting a three-fold unity. 

Sabellians .—So called from Sabellius, who founded this sect, 
and lived in the third century: he reduced the three persons in 
the Trinity to three characters, offices, or relations. 

Arians .— I his name is derived from Arius, a presbyter of 
Alexandria, who flourished about the year 315. The council of 
Nice was assembled by Constantine in the year 325, in conse¬ 
quence of the propagation of the doctrine of Arius. He owned 
Christ to be God in a subordinate degree, and considered his death 
to be a propitiation for sin. Some of the Arians believe him to 
have created the world, and they all support the opinion that he 
existed previous to his incarnation, though, in his pre-existent 
state, different, degrees of dignity are assigned to him. Hence 
the terms of high and low Arians have been applied to them. 

Socinians. — This name takes its rise from Faustus Socinus, 
who died near Cracow in Poland, about 1604?. Socinians deny 
the pre-existence of Christ; and assert that, being born a man 
like ourselves, though gifted with divine wisdom in an eminent 
degree, the only objects of his mission were to inculcate the efficacy 
of lepentance without an atonement, depending on divine mercy 
for pardon and acceptance—to exhibit in his own life a pattern 
for our imitation—to seal his doctrine with his blood—and by his 
resurrection to prove the certainty of ours at the last day. The 
Socinians have taken to themselves the appellation of Unitarians, 
and by this name they are now generally distinguished; yet they 
have no exclusive claim to it, as Trinitarians, and many Arians, 
are equally advocates for the divine unity. 

Calvinists .—So called from John Calvin, a reformer, who taught 
at Geneva, about 1540. Their doctrines are predestination, 
original sin, particular redemption, irresistible grace, and the final 
perseverance of saints: these are called the Five Points. The 
leading feature of this system of religion is, that predestination is 


CHRIST! A NIT t 


m 

absolute and unconditional from all eternity, and that God elected 
certain persons, before the foundation of the world, to eternal sal¬ 
vation and holiness ot life. The Calvinists of the present day are 
to be found chiefly among the followers of Mr. Whitefield, the 
Baptists, and the Independents ; though a very small portion of 
them maintain the above sentiments in an absolute and unqualified 
sense. 

Arminians .—So called from Arminius, the disciple of Beza, who 
flourished about the year 1600. His tenets consist of five pro¬ 
positions, and are almost diametrically opposite to those of Calvin. 
He maintains, in the first place, that God has not fixed the future 
state of mankind by an absolute and unconditional decree. 
Secondlv, That Jesus Christ made an atonement for the sins of 
all mankind in general, and of every individual in particular; but 
that none can partake of the benefits thereof, except those who 
believe in him. Thirdly, That man is not totally depraved, and 
that depravity does not come by virtue of Adam's being the public 
head, but that mortality and natural evil only are the direct conse¬ 
quences of his sin to posterity. Fourthly, That there is no such 
thing as irresistible grace in the conversion of sinners. And fifthly, 
That man may fall from faith, and forfeit, finally, his state of grace. 

Baxterians .—Adherents of the famous nonconformist, Richard 
Baxter, an eminent Puritan, who died in the year 1691. He 
struck out a sort of middle path between Arminianism and Cal¬ 
vinism ; believing with the latter that a certain number, determined 
upon in the divine counsels, will be infallibly saved; and with the 
former, he rejects the doctrine of reprobation as inconsistent and 
impious ; and supposes that such a portion of grace is allotted to 
every person as renders it his own fault if he do not attain to 
everlasting life. 

Antinomians .—This name is derived from two Greek words, 
which signify, against a laic; the favourite tenet of Christians of 
this profession being, that the law is not a rule of life to believers. 
The term Antinomian has been frequently fixed on persons by 
way of reproach ; and therefore many who have been branded 
with this name have repelled the charge. There are many Anti¬ 
nomians, indeed, in Germany, and other parts of the continent, 
and even in England, who condemn the moral law as a rule of 
life, and yet manifest a strict regard for the interests of practical 
religion. 

II. Sects whose primary distinctions arise from church govern¬ 
ment, and the administration of ceremonies. 

Church of Rome .—The following are the principal tenets of the 
church of Rome :—1. That Jesus Christ is one of the persons of 


680 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


the most holy Trinity ; that he came from heaven, took our nature 
upon him, and suffered death upon the cross. 2. That before lie 
ascended to heaven, he invested the apostle Peter with the power 
of infallibility, and gave him the keys of heaven and hell, with a 
full power of remitting or retaining the sins of men. 3. That in 
the year of Christ forty-two, the apostle Peter went to Rome, and 
governed the church there as supreme bishop above twenty-four 
years, and was at last crucified with his head downwards. 4. The 
Roman Catholics formerly believed, that the same power and au¬ 
thority which was vested in the apostle Peter, descended to every 
succeeding bishop or pope of Rome, by an uninterrupted suc¬ 
cession, who was considered as God’s vicegerent, and supreme 
head of all nations, and of every nominal church on earth ; having 
power to create or set up kings, and to depose them; to ordain 
bishops and priests, and to excommunicate them at pleasure: but 
within these few years the power of the pope has much decreased, 
and the most considerate of the Roman Catholics deny his su¬ 
preme authority altogether. 5. They believe in purgatory, or 
place of fire, to purify the souls of the departed; and that the 
priests, by offering up or saying mass, can deliver their souls from 
this state of prison and misery, and transfer them into joy and 
bliss. 6. They believe that Jesus Christ, after he was crucified, de¬ 
scended personally into hell, and released from thence all the souls 
af the former saints. 7. They assert that the blessed Virgin 
Mary is the mother of God, and that she atones for the souls of 
them that adore and worship her on earth ; therefore, her picture, 
with the pictures of other saints, ought to be held in great respect 
and veneration. 8. They believe in the efficacy of works of su¬ 
pererogation. 9. They believe that there are seven sacraments, 
namely, Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Extreme 
Unction, Orders, and Marriage. 10. They forbid the eating of 
flesh in the time of Lent, and on certain fast days; but notwith¬ 
standing their strict orders of abstinence and fasting, some will 
eat fish and other things. 11. They believe in the doctrine of 
transubstantiation; that is, after the priest has blessed or conse¬ 
crated the bread and wine in the sacrament, the symbols or 
elements are no more bread and wine, but really the very body 
and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ. 

Greek or Russian Church .—This bears a great resemblance to that 
of Rome, but they deny the Pope’s infallibility and supremacy, and 
are in communion with the Patriarch of Constantinople. Three 
articles, among others, distinguish this church:—1. The rejection of 
images. 2. The doctrine of consubstantiation, or the union of the 
body of Christ with the sacramental element. 3. Baptism by 


CHRISTIANITY. 


681 


immersion of the whole body in water. It equals the latter 
church in ceremonies and customs, many of which are very super¬ 
stitious ; they have numerous fasts, and among the rest four lents. 
Endeavours have been used to unite them to the reformed church, 
but hitherto without success. 

Protestants .—Under this appellation is included all who dissent 
from Popery, whether they reside in this or any other country, 
and into whatever sects they are divided. The name took its rise 
from their protesting against a decree of Charles V., in the year 
1529. The Protestants originated at the Reformation, which 
was effected in the sixteenth century, by the pious and indefati¬ 
gable labours of those splendid characters, Erasmus, Luther, Huss, 
Jerome of Prague, &c. The Protestants themselves are now 
divided into various sects, according to their peculiar forms of 
church government and administration of ceremonies. 

Church of England .—This is the religion and worship, as by 
law established, in the realm of England. This church is go¬ 
verned by two archbishops, besides bishops and inferior clergy, of 
whom the king is supreme. The principles of this church are 
very particularly explained in the Thirty-nine Articles, printed and 
published in their Book of Common Prayer, or form and cere¬ 
monies of worship. 

The following is a summary of its principles and manner of 
worship :—1. The church of England has thirty-nine Articles, of 
which some contain the matters of faith relating to the church of 
God; and others are civil articles, relating to its government, 
order, and discipline. 2. The first, second, third, fourth, and fifth 
Articles declare, that there is but one living and true God; that in 
the Godhead there are three persons, Father, Son, and Holy 
Ghost, all equal in power, majesty, and glory ; that the Second 
Person in this Trinity took our nature upon him, and is both God 
and man united in one Christ; that he was crucified for us in the 
flesh, was buried, rose the third day from the dead, according to 
the Scriptures ; that he ascended into heaven, and there makes 
continual intercession for us. 3. This church, in Article 9, admits 
the doctrine of original sin, and that by Adam’s transgression, all 
mankind are tainted or infected with evil, have a natural inclination 
to sin, and therefore, are obnoxious to the wrath of God; and, in 
Article 10, that man’s condition since the Fall is such, that he has 
no power, or free-will of himself, to do good works, acceptable to 
God, without the grace of God working with him. 4. The 11 th 
Article affirms, that we are justified by faith only, and are ac¬ 
counted righteous before God, for or through the merits of Christ 
only; but the 12th recommends the practice of good works, 

4 s 


682 


young man’s companion. 


as the only proof of a true faith. 5. This church teaches us, in 
Article 13, that works done before justification, or before grace is 
given, cannot be pleasing to Cfod, nor do such works make us 
meet to receive grace, as they spring not from a true and lively 
faith ; and the 14th flatly denies the works of supererogation, and 
acknowledges, that when we have done all we can possibly do, we 
are still unprofitable servants. 6. The 17th Article treats of 
the doctrine of election and predestination. 7. The 18th Article 
says, that the church holds all persons accursed who will presume 
to say that any man is saved by the law, or by any sect, profession, 
or persuasion; and the 22d denies the Romish doctrine of pur¬ 
gatory, paying adoration to angels, and relics of saints. 8. 1 he 
27th and 28th Articles acknowledge two sacraments only, namely, 
Baptism and the Lord's Supper, and say, that after consecration 
the bread and wine are unchanged, and both are to be received 
by the faithful only, in commemoration of the body and blood of 
Christ, broken and spilt upon the cross. 9. The church holds 
infant baptism; requires godfathers and godmothers; and marks the 
child in the forehead with the sign of the cross by the finger at 
the font. 

Church of Scotland .—The members of the Church, or Kirk of 
Scotland, comprise the principal body of Presbyterians in Great 
Britain. Their mode of ecclesiastical government was brought 
thither from Geneva, in 1572, by John Knox, the celebrated 
Scotch Reformer, who has been styled the apostle of Scotland, for 
the same reason that Luther was called the apostle of Germany. 
Contrary to the Episcopalians, the Presbyterians maintain that 
the church should be governed by Presbyteries, Synods, and 
General Assemblies. In the Kirk of Scotland there are fifteen 
Synods and sixty-nine Presbyteries. Their Articles are Calvin- 
istic, and their General Assembly is held annually in the month 
of May, at Edinburgh. 

The other sects in England who profess Protestantism, but dis¬ 
sent from the established church, are called Dissenters. They are 
divided into many sects, the principal of which are Presbyterians, 
Independents, and Baptists. 

Presbyterians are those persons who deny episcopacy, or the 
government of the visible church by bishops ; or those who assert 
that the church should be governed by elders or presbyters. 
Their tenets concerning God, the Trinity, the sufferings of Christ, 
&c., are nearly the same as those of the Church of England ; and 
they baptize infants by sprinkling. The church of Scotland 
hold these sentiments, and there are many others of the same faith 
and order throughout England. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


m 


The Independents , or Congregationalists, deny not only the 
subordination of the clergy, but also all dependency on other as¬ 
semblies. Each congregation, they say, has in itself what is 
necessary for its own government, and is not subject to other 
churches or to their deputies. This independency of one church 
with respect to another, has given rise to the appellation of Inde¬ 
pendents, which is specially applied to the regular congregational 
churches in England, though this mode of church government is 
adopted by many other dissenters. 

The Baptists are divided into general , who are in sentiment 
Arminians; and into particular , who are Calvinists. Both, 
however, oppose the baptism of infants; they affirm that it is 
unscriptural, and that none are proper objects of this first sacra¬ 
ment but adult persons, and such as are capable of giving an 
account of their faith in Christ; and they believe that it is an or¬ 
dinance that he enjoined all his disciples to follow. The govern¬ 
ment or discipline of the Baptists is like that of the Independents, 
by elders, or deacons, elected from their own particular community. 

III. Miscellaneous sects, whose distinction has been derived 
both from doctrinal belief and church government. 

. Methodists .—This sect was founded about the year 1729, by 
Messrs. John and Charles Wesley, with whom, in 1735, was asso¬ 
ciated the celebrated Mr. Whitefield. However, in 1741, a 
separation took place ; Mr. Wesley rejecting the doctrine of pre¬ 
destination, which Mr. Whitefield and his friends supported ; 
since which time the Methodists have been divided into the Cal- 
vinistic and Arminian; but the term has been latterly almost 
exclusively assumed by the followers of Mr. Wesley, whose prin¬ 
ciples approach nearer to Arminianism than those of any other 
sect. Their form of church government is by a general conference. 

Quakers are so called, because at first, when they spoke or 
preached, they had violent shakings or agitations. Their first 
leader was one George Fox, in the year 1650, who taught that 
the light within is more essential to guide men to heaven than the 
Holy Scriptures. This sentiment is now much modified, and they 
pay a great regard to God’s word, but still deny the two sacra¬ 
ments, and all manner of ceremonies. They refuse to take an 
oath before a magistrate, and, therefore, are allowed to give their 
affirmation when called upon as witnesses. Their worship is 
somewhat abrupt, any person rising up to pray or preach according 
as he is moved. They are very plain and simple in their dress; 
and in order and discipline in governing their different assemblies 
and congregations, and in unity, harmony, and brotherly love, 
they equal any Christian people or church in the universe. 


*. 



684 VOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 

Moravians , from Moravia, the country where they originated 
They are supposed to have arisen under Nicholas Lewis, Count 
of Zinzendorf, a German nobleman, who died 1760. They also 
style themselves Unitas Fratrum, or the United Brethren ; and, in 
general, to. adhere to the Augsburg Confession of Faith. It is not 
easy to unravel the leading tenets of the Moravians. They direct 
their worship to Jesus Christ, addressing hymns even to the 
wound, or hole , in the side of the Saviour. They revive their 
devotion by celebrating agapae, or love-feasts; and the casting of 
lots is used amongst them to know the will of the Lord. The 
sole right of contracting marriages lies with the elders. In Mr. 
La Trobe’s edition of Spangenburgh’s Exposition of Christian 
Doctrine, their principles are detailed at length. 




APPENDIX. 


ABSTRACT OF PARLIAMENTARY REFORM BILL. 

1 & 2 WILL. IV. PASSED SEPT. 21st, 1831 


Principal Clauses. 

1. Certain boroughs to cease to send members to parliament. 
2. Certain boroughs to send one member only. 3. New boroughs 
hereafter to return two members. 4. New boroughs hereafter to 
return one member. 5 and 6. The boroughs of Shoreham, Crick- 
dale, Aylesbury, East Retford, Melcomb Regis, Penryn, and 
Sandwich, to include certain adjacent districts. 7. Boundaries of 
existing boroughs in England to be settled. 8. Places in Wales, 
to have a share in elections for the shire towns. 9. Boundaries of 
certain places in Wales to be settled. 10. Swansea, Loughor, 
Neath, Aberavon, and Kenfig, to form one borough, and electors 
thereof not to vote for a member for Cardiff. 11. Description 
of the returning officers for the new boroughs. 12. Six members 
for Yorkshire,—two for each Riding. 13. Four members for 
Lincolnshire; two for Lindsey; and two for Kesteven and 
Holland. 

14. Certain counties to be divided, and to return two for each 
division. 15. Certain counties to return three members each. 

16. Isle of Wight severed from Hampshire, to return a member. 

17. Towns which are counties of themselves to be included in 
adjoining counties for county elections. 18. No freehold for life 
to give a vote for a county, &c., unless worth 10/. per year, with 
exceptions. 19. Right of voting in counties extended to copy- 
holders. 20. Right of voting in counties extended to leaseholders, 
and occupiers of premises of certain value above charges. 21. 


686 


YOUNG MAN'S COMPANION. 


What not to be deemed charges. 22. County voters need not be 
assessed to the land-tax. 23. Provision as to trustees and mort¬ 
gagees. 24. No person to vote for a county in respect of any 
freehold house, &c. occupied by himself, which would confer a 
vote for a borough. 25. No person to vote for a county in re¬ 
spect of certain copyholds and leaseholds in a borough. 26. Pos¬ 
session for a certain time and registration, essential to the right of 
voting for a county with exceptions. 27. Right of voting in 
boroughs to be enjoyed by occupiers of houses, &c. of the annual 
value of \0l. 28. Provision as to premises occupied in suc¬ 

cession. 29. As to joint occupiers. 30. Occupiers may demand 
to be rated. 

31. Provisions as to freeholders voting for cities or towns, 
being counties of themselves. 32. Freemen not to vote in cities 
or boroughs unless residents, and exclusion of some. 33. Pre¬ 
servation of other rights of voting in boroughs. 34. Provisions 
as to persons now entitled to vote for New Shoreham, Cricklade, 
Aylesbury, or East Retford, in respect of freeholds. 35. Ex¬ 
clusion of certain rights of voting acquired since the 1st of 
March, 1831. 36. As to receipt of parochial relief. 37. Over¬ 

seers to give notice annually, requiring county voters to send in 
their claims. 38. Overseers to prepare lists of county voters, and 
to publish them every year. 39. Notice of objection by third 
parties to persons not entitled to be retained in the county lists; 
and the lists of persons so objected to be published. 40. Lists 
of county voters to be forwarded to the clerks of the peace. 
41. Judges of assize to name barristers to revise such lists. 

42. Clerk of the peace and overseers to attend before the bar¬ 
risters,-who shall retain on the county lists all names not objected 
to, and shall expunge those whose qualification, if objected to, shall 
not be proved. 43. Barristers to have power to insert in the 
county lists the names of claimants omitted by the overseers, on 
proof of claim and qualification. 44. Overseers to prepare lists 
of persons (other than freemen) entitled to vote in boroughs, 
and to publish them. 45. Provision for places within boroughs 
having no overseers. 46. Town clerks to prepare and publish 
the lists of freemen. 47. Persons omitted in the borough lists to 
give notice of their claim. 48. List of liverymen of London to 
be transmitted to the returning officer; notices to be given of 
omissions and objections in list of liverymen; poll of liverymen 
to be taken at Guildhall. 49. Judges of assize to name barristers 
who shall revise the lists of borough voters. 50. Barristers, on 
proof, to insert and expunge names. 51. Power of inspecting 
tax assessments and rate books. 52. Barrister, on revising the 


APPENDIX. 


687 


lists, to have the power of adjourning, of administering oaths, &c., 
and shall sign the lists in open court. 53. Judges to appoint ad¬ 
ditional barristers in case of need. 

54. County lists to be transmitted to the clerk of the peace ; 
borough lists to be kept by returning officer, and handed to his 
successor. 55. Copies of the lists and registers to be printed for 
sale. 56. Expenses of overseers, &c., how to be defrayed. 57. 
Remuneration of the barristers for revising the lists. 58. No in¬ 
quiry at the time of election, except as to the identity of the 
voter, the continuance of his qualification, and whether he has 
voted before at the same election; oath of voter; no scrutiny by 
returning officer. 59. Persons excluded from the register by tlie 
barrister may tender their votes at elections. 60. Correctness of 
the register to be questionable before a committee of the House 
of Commons. 61. Sheriffs of the divided counties to fix the 
time and preside at elections. 62. Commencement and con¬ 
tinuance of polls at county elections. 

63. Counties to be divided into districts for polling. 64. As 
to booths at the polling places for counties. 65. Provision as to 
sheriff’s deputies, the custody of poll books, and final declaration 
of the poll for counties. 66. Sheriff in county elections may act 
in places of exclusive jurisdiction. 67. Commencement and 
continuance of polls at borough elections in England 68. Poll¬ 
ing for boroughs in England, to be at several compartments, not 
more than 600 voting at one compartment in a booth; each per¬ 
son to vote at the booth appointed for his parish or district; if 
the booths are in different places, a deputy to preside at each 
place. As to custody and poll books, and final declaration of 
poll for boroughs. 69. Polling districts to be appointed for 
Shoreham, Cricklade, Aylesbury, and East Retford. 70. When 
returning officers may close the poll before the expiration of the 
time fixed. 71. Candidates or persons proposing a candidate 
without his consent, to be at the expense of booths and poll clerks. 

72. Certified copies of the register of voters for each booth. 

73. Powers of deputies of returning officers. 74. Regulations 
respecting polling, &c., for the borough of Monmouth, and for the 
contributory boroughs in Wales. 

75. All election laws to remain in force, except where super¬ 
seded by this act. 76. Penalties on officers for breach of duty. 
77. Writs, &c., to be made conformable to this act. 78. This 
act not to extend to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. 
79. Of the sense in which words in this act are to be understood; 
“ city or borough.” 80. In case the proposed Boundary Act 
shall not pass before the 28th of June, 1832, the preparations 


688 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


for first registration to be deferred ; but if the Boundary Act pass 
after that day, the periods preparatory to, and connected with the 
first registration, to be settled by an order in council. 81. In 
case of a dissolution of Parliament after the passing of the pro¬ 
posed Boundary Act, and before registration, the rights of voting 
shall take effect without registration. 82. In case of a dissolution 
of parliament before the passing of the proposed Boundary Act, 
counties not to be divided ; boundaries of new boroughs defined ; 
boundaries of old boroughs to remain; and the rights of voting 
to take effect without registration. 


List of Disfranchised Boroughs according to Clauses 1 and 2, 
and forming Schedule A of the Reform Act. 


Boroughs. 
Old Sarum 
Bedwin, Great 
Newton . . . 

St. Michael’s > 
or Midshall ) 
Gatton . . 

Brainber . . 

Bossiney . . 

Dunwich . 
Ludgershall . 
St. Mawes 
Beeralston 
West Looe . . 

St. Germain’s 
Newport 
Bletchingly 
Aldborough 
Camelford . . 
Hindon . . . 

East Looe . . 
Corfe Castle . 
Hedon . . . 

Plympton . . 

Sea ford . . 

Heytesbury . 
Steyning . . 

Whitchurch 
Wootton Basset 
Downton . . 


Counties. 
Wiltshire 
Wiltshire 
Isle of Wight 

Cornwall 

Surrey 

Sussex 

Cornwall 

Suffolk 

Wiltshire 

Cornwall 

Devonshire 

Cornwall 

Cornwall 

Cornwall 

Surrey 

Yorkshire 

Cornwall 

Wiltshire 

Cornwall 

Dorsetshire 

Yorkshire 

Devonshire 

Sussex 

Wiltshire 

Sussex 

Hampshire 

Wiltshire 

Wiltshire 




I 


Boroughs. Counties. 


Fowey . . . . 

Yarmouth . . 

Queenborough 
Castle Rising 
East Grinsted 
Higham Ferrars . 
Wendover 
Weobly . . 

Winchilsea . . 

Tregony . . . 

Haslemere . . . 
Saltash . . . . 

Orford . . . . 

Callington . . 
Newton . . . 

Ilchester . . . 

Boroughbridge 
Stockbridge . . 
Romney (New) . 
Milborne Port 
Aldeburgh . . 

Minehead . . . 

Bishops’s Castle . 
Okehampton . . 
Appleby . . . 
Lostwithiel . . 
Brackley . . . 
Amersham . . 


Cornwall 

Isle of Wight, 

Hampshire 

Kent 

Norfolk 

Sussex 

Northamptonshire 

Buckinghamshire 

Herefordshire 

Sussex 

Cornwall 

Surrey 

Cornwall 

Suffolk 

Cornwall 

Lancashire 

Somersetshire 

Yorkshire 

Hampshire 

Kent 

Somersetshire 

Suffolk 

Somersetshire 

Shropshire 

Devonshire 

Westmoreland 

Cornwall 

N orthamptonshire 
Buckinghamshire 


List of Boiouglis, the Representation of which is reduced from 
two to one Member each, forming Schedule B of the Reform 
Act. 


Boroughs. 
Petersfield , 
Ashburton . 
Eye . . . 


Counties. 

Hampshire 

Devonshire 

Suffolk 


Boroughs. 
Westbury , 
Wareham . 
Midhurst 


Counties. 

Wiltshire 

Dorsetshire 

Sussex 








APPENDIX. 


689 


Boroughs. 
Woodstock 
Wilton . . 
Malmesbury 

•r 

Liskeard 
Reigate 
Hythe 
Droitwich . 
Lyme Regis 
Launceston 
Shaftesbury 
Thirsk . . 

Christchurch 


Counties 

Oxfordshire 

Wiltshire 

Wiltshire 

Cornwall 

Surrey 

Kent 

Worcestershire 

Dorsetshire 

Cornwall 

Dorsetshire 

Yorkshire 

Hampshire 


Boroughs. 

Horsham . . . 

Great Grimsby 
Caine . . . . 

Arundel . . . 

St. Ives . . . . 

Rye . . . . '. 

Clitheroe . . . 

Morpeth . . . 

Helston . . . 

North Allerton . 
Wallingford . . 
Dartmouth . . 


Counties. 
Sussex 
Lincolnshire 
Wiltshire 
Sussex 
Cornwall 
Sussex 
Lancashire 
Northumberland 
Cornwall 
Y orkshire 
Berkshire 
Devonshire 


List of New Boroughs to return two Members each to Parlia¬ 
ment, enacted by Clause 3, and forming Schedule C of the 
Reform Act. 


Principal places to be Boroughs. 
Manchester . . Lancashire 

Birmingham . . Warwickshire 

Leeds .... Yorkshire 
Greenwich. . . Kent 

Sheffield . . . Yorkshire 

Sunderland . » Durham 
Devonport. . . Devonshire 

Wolverhampton . Staffordshire 
Tower Hamlets . Middlesex 
Finsbury . . . Middlesex 

Marylebone . . Middlesex 


Principal places to be Boroughs. 
Lambeth . . . Surrey 

Bolton .... Lancashire 
Bradford . . . Yorkshire 

Blackburn . . Lancashire 

Brighton . . . Sussex 

Halifax . . . Yorkshire 

Macclesfield . . Cheshire 

Oldham .... Lancashire 
Stockport . . . Cheshire 

Stoke-upon-Trent Staffordshire 
Stroud .... Gloucestershire 


List of New Boroughs to return one Member each to Par¬ 
liament, enacted by Clause 4, and forming Schedule D of the 
Reform Act. 


Principal places to be Boroughs. 
Ashton-under-Lyne Lancashire 


Bury . . . 

Chatham . . 

Gateshead . . 

Huddersfield . 
Kidderminster 
Kendal . . . 

Rochdale . . 

Salford . . . 

South Shields 


. Lancashire 
. Kent 
. Durham 
. Yorkshire 
. Worcestershire 
. Westmoreland 
. Lancashire 
. Lancashire 
. Durham 


Principal places to be Boroughs. 


Cheltenham 
Dudley . . . 
Frome . . . 

Tynemouth 
Wakefield . . 

Walsall . . . 

Warrington 
Whitby . . . 

Whitehaven 
Merthyr Tydvil 


Gloucestershire 

Worcestershire 

Somersetshire 

Northumberland 

Yorkshire 

Staffordshire 

Lancashire 

Yorkshire 

Cumberland 

Glamorganshire 


List of places which are to share in the Election of Members 
of Parliament, with the Shire-towns or Boroughs placed against 
their names, enacted by Clause 8, and forming Schedule E, No. 1, 
of the Reform Act. 


Places sharing in the Shire Towns of principal 
Election of Members. Boroughs. 

Amlwch . . . i 

Holyhead . . > sharing with Beaumaris 

Llangefni . . y 

4 T 


Counties in which such Borough 
are situated. 

. . . Anglesea 










690 


YOtrncj man’s companion. 


Places sharing in the 
Election of Members. 

Aberystwith 
Lampeter . 

Adpar . . 

Llanelly . 

Pwllheli . 

Nevin . . 

Conway . 

Bangor 
Criccieth . 

Ruthin 
Holt . . . 

Town of Wrexham 
Rhyddlan 
Overton . 

Caerwis . 
Caergwrley 
St. Asaph 
Holywell . 

Mold . . 

Cowbridge 
Llantrissent 
Llanidloes 
Welsh Pool 
Machynlleth 
Llanfillin . 

Newton . 

Narberth . 
Fishguard 
Tenby 
Wiston 

Town of Milford 
Knighton , 

Ilhayder . 
Kevinleece 
Knucklas . 

Town of Presteigne^ 


Shire Towns of principal Counties in which such Boroughs 
Boroughs. are situated. 

sharing with Cardigan .... Cardiganshire 

sharing with Caermarthen. . . Caermarthenshire 

sharing with Caernarvon . . . Caernarvonshire 

sharing with Denbigh .... Denbighshire 

sharing with Flint.Flintshire 

sharing with Cardiff.Glamorganshire 

sharing with Montgomery . . Montgomeryshire 

sharing with Haverfordwest . . Pembrokeshire 

sharing with Pembroke .... Pembrokeshire 

sharing with Radnor .... Radnorshire 


List of Places which are to share in the Election of Members of 
Parliament enacted bv Clause 14, and forming Schedule E, 
No. 2, of the Reform "Act. 

' i 


Places sharing in 
Elections. 

Newport . . 

Usk ... 

Aberystwith . 

Lampeter . . 

Adpar * . . 

Pwllheli . • 

Nevin . . . 

Conway . . 

Criccieth . . 


Places from which the 
7 Miles are calculated. 

The market place 
The town hall 
The bridge over 
the Rhedal 
The parish church 
The bridge over 
the Teivi 
The guildhall 
The parish church 
The parish church 
The castle 


Places sharing in 
Elections. 

Ruthin . . . 

Holt . . . 

Rhyddlan . . 

Overton . . 

Caerwis . . 

Caergwrley 

Cowbridge. . 

Llantrissent . 
Tenby . . . 


Places from which the 
7 Miles are calculated. 

The parish church 
called St. Peter’s 
. The parish church 
. The parish church 
. The parish church 
. The parish church 
The parish church 
of Hope 
. The town hall 
. The town hall 
. The parish church 










APPENDIX. 


691 


Places sharing in 
Elections. 

Wiston . . 
Knighton . . 

Rhayder . . 

Kevinleece. . 

Knucklas 


Places from which the 
7 Miles are calculated. 

The parish church 
The parish church 
The market place 
The parish church 
The site of the an¬ 
cient castle of 
Cnweglas 


Places sharing in 
Elections. 


Places from which the 
7 Miles are calculated 


Swansea 
Loughor 
Neath . 

Aberavon 
Kenfig . 


. . . The town hall 

. . . The parish church 

. . . The town hall 

j The bridge over 
the Avon 

K The parish church 
* * * \ of Lower Kenfig 


List of Counties to be divided, and Members to be returned 
for each Division, according to Schedule F, and Clauses 12 and 13, 
of the Reform Act. 


Cheshire 

Gloucestershire 

N orthumberlandshire 

Surrey 

Cornwall 

Kent 

Northamptonshire 

Sussex 

Cumberland 

Hampshire 

Nottinghamshire 

Warwickshire 

Derbyshire f 

Lancashire 

Shropshire 

Wiltshire 

Devonshire 

Lincolnshire 

Somersetshire 

Worcestershire 

Durham 

Leicestershire 

Staffordshire 

Yorkshire 

Essex 

Norfolk 

Suffolk 



List of Counties to return three Members each, enacted by 
Clause 14, and forming Schedule F 2, of the Reform Act. 

Berkshire I Cambridgeshire Herefordshire I Oxfordshire 

Buckinghamshire J Dorsetshire Hertfordshire | 

List of Welsh Counties which formerly sent one, and are.now 
to send two Members each to Parliament, according to Clause 15 
of the Reform Act. 


Caermarthen | Denbigh j Glamorgan 

List of Cities and Towns and Counties thereof, which are in 
future to form a part of the counties at large, in which they are 
included, enacted by Clause 17, and forming Schedule G in the 
Reform Act. 


Cities and Towns, 
and Counties thereof. 

Caermarthen . . 

Canterbury . . 

Chester . . . 

Coventry . . . 

Gloucester . . 

Kingston-upon- 
Hull . . • 

Lincoln . . . 


Counties at large, in 
which Cities, fyc. are 
to be included. 

Caermarthenshire 
Kent 
Cheshire 
Warwickshire 
Gloucestershire 
East Riding of 
Yorkshire 
The parts of Lind¬ 
sey, Lincolnshire 


Cities and Towns, 
and Counties thereof. 

London . . 

Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne . . 

Poole . . . 

Worcester . . 

York and Ainsty 

Southampton . . 


Counties at large, tn 
which Cities, fyc. are 
to be included. 

Middlesex 

Northumberland 

Dorsetshire 
Worcestershire 
North Riding of 
Yorkshire 
Hampshire 










692 


YOUNG MAN’S COMPANION. 


Notice of Claim, to be given to the Overseers. 

I do hereby give you notice, that I claim to be inserted in 
the list of voters for the county of [or for the 

riding, parts, or division of the county of as the case 

may be,] and that the particulars of my place of abode and 
qualification, are stated below. Dated the day of 

in the year 

(Signed) John Adams. 

Place of abode, Cheapside, London. 


Notice of Objection to be given to the Overseers . 

To the Overseers of the parish of [or 

township, as the case may be.] 

I hereby give you notice, that I object to the name of 
William Ball being retained in the' list of voters for the county 
of [or for the riding, parts, or 

division of the county of .] Dated the 

day of in the year of 

(Signed) A. B. of [place of abode.] 


vour name 


Notice of Objection to Parties inserted in the List. 

To Mr. William Ball, 

I hereby give you notice, that I object to 
being retained in the list of voters for the county of 
[or for the riding, parts, or division of the county of 
and that you will be required to prove your qualification at the 
time of the revising of the said list. Dated the day of 

in the year 

(Signed) A. B. [pi ace of abode.] 


j 


Notice of Claim. 

To the Overseers of the parish [or township] of 
or to the town clerk of the city [or borough] of [as 

the case may be.] 

I hereby give you notice, that I claim to have my name 
inserted in the list made by you of persons entitled to vote 
in the election of a member [or members] for the city [or borough] 
°f , and that my qualification consists of a house 

in Duke-street, m your parish, or otherwise fas the case mav be ■] 


APPENDIX. 


693 


[and in case of a freeman, say, and my qualification is as a free¬ 
man of , and that I reside in Lord-street, in 

this city or borough.] Dated the day of 

one thousand eight hundred and 

(Signed) J ohn Allen, of [place of abode.] 

Notice of Objection. 

To the Overseers of the parish [or township] of 
or to the town clerk of the city [or borough] of or 

otherwise [as the case may be.] 

I hereby give you notice, that I object to the name of 
Thomas Bates being retained in the list of persons entitled to 
vote in the election of a member [or members] for the city [or 
borough] of , and that I shall bring forward such 

objection at the time of the revising of such list. Dated the 

day of , in the year 

(Signed) A. B. [place of abode.] 


Notice of Claim to be given to the Returning Officer or Officers 
of the City of London , and to the Clerks of the respective 
Livery Companies. 

To the returning officer or officers of the city of London, 
[or to the clerk of the company of .] 

I hereby give you notice that I claim to have my name 
inserted in the list made by the clerk of the company of 
[or, in case of notice to the clerk, say, made by you] of the 
liverymen of the said company, [or, in case of notice to the clerk, 
say, of the liverymen of the company of ] 

entitled to vote in the election of members for the City of London. 


Dated the 


(Signed) 


J Place of abode 
( Name of company. 


Notice of Objection to parties inserted in the List of the Livery . 
To Mr. William Baker, 

I hereby give you notice, that I object to your name 
being retained in the list of persons entitled to vote as a freeman 
of the City of London, and liveryman of the company of 
in the election of members for the said city, and that I shall 
bring forward such objection at the time of revising the said list. 

Dated the day of 

(Signed) A. B. [place of abode.] 


694 YOUNG man's companion. 

Abstract of Municipal Reform Bill. 

5 & 6 Will. IV. chap. 76.—Sept. 9, 1835. 

Repeals, all royal and other charters, grants, and letters 
patent to the boroughs, as particularized in the Act, so far as 
inconsistent with this Act. Reserves all rights of property, and 
beneficial exemptions to freemen, their widows and orphans, in¬ 
cluding all incohate rights. Freedom not to be acquired by gift 
or purchase. Parliamentary franchise reserved to freemen. “ The 
Freemen’s Roll” to be kept by the town clerk; to be examined, 
and copies furnished on payment. Corporations to be styled 
“ The Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses.” 

Boundaries, as settled by the Parliamentary Reform Act, until 
altered by parliament. Places, precincts, or parts of districts 
included within boroughs or counties, are to be taken as part of 
the divisions wherein situated : proportional amounts of payments 
to be settled by award of barristers, &c. 

Occupiers of houses, warehouses, counting-houses, and shops, 
rated for three years, if resident householders within seven miles, 
entitled to become burgesses; exclusive of aliens and receivers of 
parocfiial relief. Medical assistance and public instruction not to 
be deemed parochial relief. Occupiers may claim to be rated: 
where rates are payable by the landlord, claim of occupier not to 
be annulled thereby. 

In titles by descent, marriage, &c., the time of rating to include 
the previous occupancy. Occupancy and payment of rates, the 
only grounds of claiming, to be enrolled. Exclusive rights of 
trading by retail, &c., wholly abolished. “The Burgess List” to 
be made out annually, September 15th. When no town clerk, 
persons doing duties of town clerk to act; where no overseers, 
such place to be described as belonging to neighbouring parish. 
Regulates notices as to omission of names, objections to names, 
and publication thereof: lists to be kept, consulted, &c., and 
sold at one shilling each. The mayor and two assessors chosen 
by the burgesses, to revise lists annually. 

Mayor, aldermen, and counsellors, to be elected by the bur¬ 
gesses ; one-third of the council to go out of office annually, but 
are re*eligible. Counsellors to be chosen November 1st annually. 
Barristers to appoint boundaries of wards; and also assign the 
number of counsellors, &c. Burgesses to elect counsellors and 
assessors in their respective wards. Bankruptcy, &c. to disqualify 
and displace, mayor, aldermen, and counsellors. If convicted of 
bribery, penalty 50/., and disqualified from all elective rights. 
Pci sons offending, if they detect and convict others so offending, 



APrENJDIX. 


695 


to be themselves exempt from penalties. A watch committee to 
be appointed; constables of boroughs to act for the counties. 
1 he crown to appoint justices at pleasure. Stipendiary, if at 
request of councils; qualification not requisite; but not sit at 
gaol delivery, &c. Council to find “police officers.” The Crown 
on petition may grant charters of incorporation. 


RECEIPTS, MEMORANDUMS, &c. 

ELECTUARY FOR A COUGH. 

Take of aniseed, liquorice, and elecampane powders, each half 
an ounce; of diapente, a quarter of an ounce ; jalap powder one 
dram; mix them in a quarter of a pound of treacle, or honey, and 
take a tea-spoonful night and morning. This remedy has been 
found, by forty years’ experience, particularly efficacious in a 
cough of long standing, but must not be used for one which 
arises from a recent cold. 

CURE FOR A RECENT COUGH AND COLD. 

Put a large tea-cupful of linseed, with a (fuarter of a pound 
of sun raisins, and two pennyworth of stick liquorice, into two 
quarts of soft water, and let it simmer over a slow fire till reduced 
to one quart; add to it a quarter of a pound of pounded sugar- 
candy, a table spoonful of old rum, and a table spoonful of the 
best white wine vinegar, or lemon juice. The rum and vinegar 
should be added as the decoction is taken; for if they are put in 
at first, the whole soon becomes flat and less efficacious. The 
dose is half a pint, made warm, on going to bed; and a little 
may be taken whenever the cough is troublesome. The worst 
cold is generally cured by this remedy in two or three days; and 
if taken in time, is considered infallible. It is a fine balsamic 
cordial for the lungs. 


OILS FOR A SPRAIN. 

Take of oil of John's wort, oil of swallows, oil of worms, oil of 
whelps, oil of camomile, and spirits of wine, each half an ounce; 
mix them together, and apply them to the part affected, with a 
feather, by the fire-side when going to bed; keep it moist with 
the oil, as fast as the fire dries it, for half an hour; and, in the most 
obstinate case, it will effect a cure in a few days. 



D 


696 YOUNG MANS COMPANION. 

CURE FOR TflE AGUE. 

* 

Take thirty grains of snake root; forty of wormwood; half an 
ounce of the best powdered Jesuit’s bark; and half a pint of red 
port wine. Put the whole into a bottle, and shake it well together. 
It should be taken in four equal quantities, the first thing in the 
morning, and the last thing at night, when the fit is quite over. 
The quantity should be made into eight parts for a child, and the 
bottle should always be shaken before taking the medicine. 

This medicine should be continued some time after the ague 
and fever have left. 


BLACKING. 

Into three pints of small beer put two ounces of ivory black, 
and one pennyworth of brown sugar. As soon as they boil, put 
a dessert spoonful of sweet oil, and then boil slowly till reduced 
to a quart. Stir it up with a stick every time it is used; and 
put it on the shoe with a brush when wanted. 

GAS LIGHT ON A SMALL SCALE. 

Take an ordinary tobacco-pipe, and nearly fill the bowl with 
small coals, and stop the mouth of the bowl with any suitable 
luting, as pipe cla^, or the mixture of sand and common clay, 
or, as clay is apt to shrink, of sand and beer; and place the bowl 
in a fire between the bars of a grate, so that the pipe may stand 
nearly perpendicular. In a few minutes, if the luting is good, 
the gas will begin to escape from the orifice of the pipe; when, 
if a piece of lighted paper, or a candle be applied, it will take fire 
and burn for several minutes, with an intense light. When the 
light goes out, a residuum of useful products will be found in 
the bowl. 


COPAL VARNISH. 

( 

Melt slowly one pound of copal; add half a pint of boiling 
drying oil; when incorporated, add one pint of oil of turpentine 
made hot. \ ou may add from half a pint to three pints of 
boiling drying oil, according to the consistence required. 


THE END. 


KICHARD CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL, LONDON. 





























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